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Lalonde R, Strazielle C. The Neuroanatomical Basis of the 5-HT Syndrome and Harmalineinduced Tremor. Curr Rev Clin Exp Pharmacol 2024; 19:163-172. [PMID: 37403385 DOI: 10.2174/2772432819666230703095203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2022] [Revised: 05/16/2023] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 07/06/2023]
Abstract
The 5-HT syndrome in rats is composed of head weaving, body shaking, forepaw treading, flat body posture, hindlimb abduction, and Straub tail. The importance of the brainstem and spinal cord for the syndrome is underlined by findings of 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine (5,7-DHT)-induced denervation supersensitivity in response to 5-HT-stimulant drugs. For head weaving and Straub tail, supersensitivity occurred when the neurotoxin was injected into the cisterna magna or spinal cord, for forepaw treading in cisterna magna, and for hindlimb abduction in the spinal cord. Although 5,7- DHT-related body shaking increased in the spinal cord, the sign decreased when injected into the striatum, indicating the modulatory influence of the basal ganglia. Further details on body shaking are provided by its reduced response to harmaline after 5-HT depletion caused by intraventricular 5,7-DHT, electrolytic lesions of the medial or dorsal raphe, and lesions of the inferior olive caused by systemic injection of 3-acetylpyridine along with those found in Agtpbp1pcd or nr cerebellar mouse mutants. Yet the influence of the climbing fiber pathway on other signs of the 5-HT syndrome remains to be determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Lalonde
- University of Lorraine, Laboratory of Stress, Immunity, Pathogens (EA7300), Medical School, 54500 Vandoeuvre-les- Nancy, France
| | - Catherine Strazielle
- University of Lorraine, Laboratory of Stress, Immunity, Pathogens (EA7300), Medical School, 54500 Vandoeuvre-les- Nancy, France
- Dépt Médecine, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nancy, Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, France
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Khatoun A, Asamoah B, Boogers A, Mc Laughlin M. Epicranial Direct Current Stimulation Suppresses Harmaline Tremor in Rats. Neuromodulation 2022:S1094-7159(22)01223-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neurom.2022.08.448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2022] [Revised: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/01/2022] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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Lee J, Kim J, Cortez J, Chang SY. Thalamo-cortical network is associated with harmaline-induced tremor in rodent model. Exp Neurol 2022; 358:114210. [PMID: 36007599 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2022.114210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Essential tremor (ET) is the most frequent form of pathologic tremor and one of the most common adult-onset neurologic impairments. However, underlying mechanisms by which structural alterations within the tremor circuit generate the pathological state and how rhythmic neuronal activities propagate and drive tremor remains unclear. Harmaline (HA)-induced tremor model has been most frequently utilized animal model for ET studies, however, there is still a dearth of knowledge over the degree to whether HA-induced tremor mimics the actual underlying pathophysiology of ET, particularly the involvement of thalamo-cortical region. In this study, we investigated the electrophysiological response of the motor circuit including the ventrolateral thalamus (vlTh) and the primary motor cortex (M1), and the modulatory effect of thalamic deep brain stimulation (DBS) using a rat HA-induced tremor model. We found that the theta and high-frequency oscillation (HFO) band power significantly increased after HA administration in both vlTh and M1, and the activity was modulated by the tremor suppression drug (propranolol) and the thalamic DBS. The theta band phase synchronization between the vlTh and M1 was significantly enhanced during the HA-induced tremor, and the transition of cross-frequency coupling in vlTh was found to be associated with the state of HA-induced tremor. Our findings support that the HA tremor could be useful as a valid preclinical model of ET in the context of thalamo-cortical neural network interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeyeon Lee
- Department of Radiology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Jiwon Kim
- Department of Neurologic Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Joshua Cortez
- Department of Neurologic Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Su-Youne Chang
- Department of Neurologic Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA; Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA.
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Quantitative behavioral models for high-resolution measurement and characterization of tremor in rodents. Brain Res Bull 2022; 186:8-15. [PMID: 35487386 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2022.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Revised: 04/16/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Tremor is an involuntary, rhythmic movement disorder. Despite its prevalence, the underlying pathophysiology remains poorly understood and effective treatment options are limited. Animal models are essential in enhancing our understanding of the mechanisms of tremorogenesis and developing new therapeutic interventions. Although tremor is amenable to measurement by automated systems, visual observation is still the most prevalent method for recording tremor in animal studies. This review gives a brief summary of two behavioral methods that enable quantitative measurement of forelimb tremor (the press-while-licking task) and whole-body tremor (the force-plate actometer) in rodents. These methods utilize force transducer and computing technologies to generate high-resolution force-time waveforms for automated detection and characterization of tremor. The focus will be on the sensitive, precise, and quantitative measurement of tremors induced in rodents by low-dose pharmacological agents, brain lesion, physical training, and genetic mutations. The methods reviewed here provide new tools that can facilitate preclinical assessment of treatment strategies for tremor.
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Zarcone TJ. Neuroscience and Actometry: an example of the benefits of the precise measurement of behavior. Brain Res Bull 2022; 185:86-90. [PMID: 35472566 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2022.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Revised: 04/19/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Assess the impact the force-plate actometer, invented by Stephen C. Fowler, has had on behavioral neuroscience so far and what may be possible for future progress. METHODS The web service Scopus was queried on April 28, 2021 for articles that cited the Journal of Neuroscience Methods paper titled "A force-plate actometer for quantitating rodent behaviors: illustrative data on locomotion, rotation, spatial patterning, stereotypies, and tremor" resulting in 134 articles. Articles were coded by the author for type (e.g., research, review, book chapter), phenomenon (e.g., stress, addiction), intervention (e.g., pharmacological), and measure (e.g., distance traveled, tremor). CONCLUSIONS Of the 134 citations, 116 were research articles, 10 were review articles, 7 were book chapters and one was an advertisement. The force-plate actometer has been used to study a variety of phenomena and its measurement capabilities were expanded. While primarily used for rats and mice, other species have been used.
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Affiliation(s)
- Troy J Zarcone
- National Institute on Drug Abuse, 301 North Stonestreet Ave, Bethesda, MD 20892.
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Woodward K, Apps R, Goodfellow M, Cerminara NL. Cerebello-Thalamo-Cortical Network Dynamics in the Harmaline Rodent Model of Essential Tremor. Front Syst Neurosci 2022; 16:899446. [PMID: 35965995 PMCID: PMC9365993 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2022.899446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Essential Tremor (ET) is a common movement disorder, characterised by a posture or movement-related tremor of the upper limbs. Abnormalities within cerebellar circuits are thought to underlie the pathogenesis of ET, resulting in aberrant synchronous oscillatory activity within the thalamo-cortical network leading to tremors. Harmaline produces pathological oscillations within the cerebellum, and a tremor that phenotypically resembles ET. However, the neural network dynamics in cerebellar-thalamo-cortical circuits in harmaline-induced tremor remains unclear, including the way circuit interactions may be influenced by behavioural state. Here, we examined the effect of harmaline on cerebello-thalamo-cortical oscillations during rest and movement. EEG recordings from the sensorimotor cortex and local field potentials (LFP) from thalamic and medial cerebellar nuclei were simultaneously recorded in awake behaving rats, alongside measures of tremor using EMG and accelerometery. Analyses compared neural oscillations before and after systemic administration of harmaline (10 mg/kg, I.P), and coherence across periods when rats were resting vs. moving. During movement, harmaline increased the 9-15 Hz behavioural tremor amplitude and increased thalamic LFP coherence with tremor. Medial cerebellar nuclei and cerebellar vermis LFP coherence with tremor however remained unchanged from rest. These findings suggest harmaline-induced cerebellar oscillations are independent of behavioural state and associated changes in tremor amplitude. By contrast, thalamic oscillations are dependent on behavioural state and related changes in tremor amplitude. This study provides new insights into the role of cerebello-thalamo-cortical network interactions in tremor, whereby neural oscillations in thalamocortical, but not cerebellar circuits can be influenced by movement and/or behavioural tremor amplitude in the harmaline model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn Woodward
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Richard Apps
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Marc Goodfellow
- Department of Engineering, Mathematics and Physical Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
- Living Systems Institute, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Nadia L. Cerminara
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
- *Correspondence: Nadia L. Cerminara
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Lang EJ, Handforth A. Is the inferior olive central to essential tremor? Yes. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2022; 163:133-165. [PMID: 35750361 DOI: 10.1016/bs.irn.2022.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
We consider the question whether the inferior olive (IO) is required for essential tremor (ET). Much evidence shows that the olivocerebellar system is the main system capable of generating the widespread synchronous oscillatory Purkinje cell (PC) complex spike (CS) activity across the cerebellar cortex that would be capable of generating the type of bursting cerebellar output from the deep cerebellar nuclei (DCN) that could underlie tremor. Normally, synchronous CS activity primarily reflects the effective electrical coupling of IO neurons by gap junctions, and traditionally, ET research has focused on the hypothesis of increased coupling of IO neurons as the cause of hypersynchronous CS activity underlying tremor. However, recent pathology studies of brains from humans with ET and evidence from mutant mice, particularly the hotfoot17 mouse, that largely replicate the pathology of ET, suggest that the abnormal innervation of multiple Purkinje cells (PCs) by climbing fibers (Cfs) is related to tremor. In addition, ET brains show partial PC loss and axon terminal sprouting by surviving PCs. This may provide another mechanism for tremor. It is proposed that in ET, these three mechanisms may promote tremor. They all involve hypersynchronous DCN activity and an intact IO, but the level at which excessive synchronization occurs may be at the IO level (from abnormal afferent activity to this nucleus), the PC level (via aberrant Cfs), or the DCN level (via terminal PC collateral innervation).
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Kosmowska B, Wardas J. The Pathophysiology and Treatment of Essential Tremor: The Role of Adenosine and Dopamine Receptors in Animal Models. Biomolecules 2021; 11:1813. [PMID: 34944457 PMCID: PMC8698799 DOI: 10.3390/biom11121813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Revised: 11/25/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Essential tremor (ET) is one of the most common neurological disorders that often affects people in the prime of their lives, leading to a significant reduction in their quality of life, gradually making them unable to independently perform the simplest activities. Here we show that current ET pharmacotherapy often does not sufficiently alleviate disease symptoms and is completely ineffective in more than 30% of patients. At present, deep brain stimulation of the motor thalamus is the most effective ET treatment. However, like any brain surgery, it can cause many undesirable side effects; thus, it is only performed in patients with an advanced disease who are not responsive to drugs. Therefore, it seems extremely important to look for new strategies for treating ET. The purpose of this review is to summarize the current knowledge on the pathomechanism of ET based on studies in animal models of the disease, as well as to present and discuss the results of research available to date on various substances affecting dopamine (mainly D3) or adenosine A1 receptors, which, due to their ability to modulate harmaline-induced tremor, may provide the basis for the development of new potential therapies for ET in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jadwiga Wardas
- Department of Neuropsychopharmacology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, 31-343 Kraków, Poland;
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Bello EM, Blumenfeld M, Dao J, Krieg JDS, Wilmerding LK, Johnson MD. Considerations Using Harmaline for a Primate Model of Tremor. Tremor Other Hyperkinet Mov (N Y) 2021; 11:35. [PMID: 34611499 PMCID: PMC8447964 DOI: 10.5334/tohm.634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background While harmaline has been used as a pharmacological model of essential tremor (ET) in rodents and pigs, less is known about the effects of this pharmacological treatment in awake-behaving non-human primates. In this study, we investigated the time-course, amplitude, frequency, and consistency of harmaline tremor in primates. Methods Three rhesus macaques were administered doses of harmaline ranging from 2-12 mg/kg (i.m.), and tremorous movements were quantified with accelerometers. One subject was also trained to perform a self-paced cued reaching task, with task engagement assessed under harmaline doses ranging from 2-8 mg/kg (i.m.). Results Whole-body tremors manifested within 30 minutes of threshold-dose administration, and peak oscillatory frequency ranged between 10-14 Hz. However, large differences in tremor intensity and intermittency were observed across individual subjects under similar dosing levels. Additionally, engagement with the reaching task was dependent on harmaline dose, with performance mostly unaffected at 2 mg/kg and with little task-engagement at 8 mg/kg. Discussion We provide a detailed assessment of factors that may underlie the heterogeneous responses to harmaline, and lay out important caveats towards the applicability of the behaving harmaline-tremoring non-human primate as a preclinical model for ET. Highlights The harmaline-primate is revisited for its potential as a preclinical model of tremor. Spontaneous tremor was heterogenous in amplitude across subjects despite similar harmaline doses, action tremors were not consistently observed, and performance on a behavioral task degraded with higher dosages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward M. Bello
- Biomedical Engineering Department, University of Minnesota, US
| | | | - Joan Dao
- Biomedical Engineering Department, University of Minnesota, US
| | | | | | - Matthew D. Johnson
- Biomedical Engineering Department, University of Minnesota, US
- Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, US
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Nayak R, Lee J, Chantigian S, Fatemi M, Chang SY, Alizad A. Imaging the response to deep brain stimulation in rodent using functional ultrasound. Phys Med Biol 2021; 66:05LT01. [PMID: 33482648 PMCID: PMC7920924 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6560/abdee5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we explored the feasibility of using functional ultrasound (fUS) imaging to visualize cerebral activation associated with thalamic deep brain stimulation (DBS), in rodents. The ventrolateral (VL) thalamus was stimulated using electrical pulses of low and high frequencies of 10 and 100 Hz, respectively, and multiple voltages (1-7 V) and pulse widths (50-1500 μs). The fUS imaging demonstrated DBS-evoked activation of cerebral cortex based on changes of cerebral blood volume, specifically at the primary motor cortex (PMC). Low frequency stimulation (LFS) demonstrated significantly higher PMC activation compared to higher frequency stimulation (HFS), at intensities (5-7 V). Whereas, at lower intensities (1-3 V), only HFS demonstrated visible PMC activation. Further, LFS-evoked cerebral activation was was primarily located at the PMC. Our data presents the functionality and feasibility of fUS imaging as an investigational tool to identify brain areas associated with DBS. This preliminary study is an important stepping stone towards conducting real-time functional ultrasound imaging of DBS in awake and behaving animal models, which is of significant interest to the community for studying motor-related disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rohit Nayak
- Department of Radiology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, Minnesota 55902, United States
| | - Jeyeon Lee
- Department of Neurologic Surgery, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, Minnesota 55902, United States
| | - Siobhan Chantigian
- Department of Neurologic Surgery, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, Minnesota 55902, United States
| | - Mostafa Fatemi
- Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, Minnesota 55902, United States
| | - Su-Youne Chang
- Department of Neurologic Surgery, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, Minnesota 55902, United States
- Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, Minnesota 55902, United States
| | - Azra Alizad
- Department of Radiology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, Minnesota 55902, United States
- Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, Minnesota 55902, United States
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Handforth A, Lang EJ. Increased Purkinje Cell Complex Spike and Deep Cerebellar Nucleus Synchrony as a Potential Basis for Syndromic Essential Tremor. A Review and Synthesis of the Literature. THE CEREBELLUM 2020; 20:266-281. [PMID: 33048308 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-020-01197-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
We review advances in understanding Purkinje cell (PC) complex spike (CS) physiology that suggest increased CS synchrony underlies syndromic essential tremor (ET). We searched PubMed for papers describing factors that affect CS synchrony or cerebellar circuits potentially related to tremor. Inferior olivary (IO) neurons are electrically coupled, with the degree of coupling controlled by excitatory and GABAergic inputs. Clusters of coupled IO neurons synchronize CSs within parasagittal bands via climbing fibers (Cfs). When motor cortex is stimulated in rats at varying frequencies, whisker movement occurs at ~10 Hz, correlated with synchronous CSs, indicating that the IO/CS oscillatory rhythm gates movement frequency. Intra-IO injection of the GABAA receptor antagonist picrotoxin increases CS synchrony, increases whisker movement amplitude, and induces tremor. Harmaline and 5-HT2a receptor activation also increase IO coupling and CS synchrony and induce tremor. The hotfoot17 mouse displays features found in ET brains, including cerebellar GluRδ2 deficiency and abnormal PC Cf innervation, with IO- and PC-dependent cerebellar oscillations and tremor likely due to enhanced CS synchrony. Heightened coupling within the IO oscillator leads, through its dynamic control of CS synchrony, to increased movement amplitude and, when sufficiently intense, action tremor. Increased CS synchrony secondary to aberrant Cf innervation of multiple PCs likely also underlies hotfoot17 tremor. Deep cerebellar nucleus (DCN) hypersynchrony may occur secondary to increased CS synchrony but might also occur from PC axonal terminal sprouting during partial PC loss. Through these combined mechanisms, increased CS/DCN synchrony may plausibly underlie syndromic ET.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Handforth
- Neurology Service, Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, 11301 Wilshire Blvd., Los Angeles, CA, 90073, USA.
| | - Eric J Lang
- Department of Neuroscience and Physiology, New York University, School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
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Bello EM, Agnesi F, Xiao Y, Dao J, Johnson MD. Frequency-dependent spike-pattern changes in motor cortex during thalamic deep brain stimulation. J Neurophysiol 2020; 124:1518-1529. [PMID: 32965147 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00198.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The cerebellar-receiving area of the motor thalamus is the primary anatomical target for treating essential tremor with deep brain stimulation (DBS). Although neuroimaging studies have shown that higher stimulation frequencies in this target correlate with increased cortical metabolic activity, less is known about the cellular-level functional changes that occur in the primary motor cortex (M1) with thalamic stimulation and how these changes depend on the frequency of DBS. In this study, we used a preclinical animal model of DBS to collect single-unit spike recordings in M1 before, during, and after DBS targeting the cerebellar-receiving area of the motor thalamus (VPLo, nucleus ventralis posterior lateralis pars oralis). The effects of VPLo-DBS on M1 spike rates, interspike interval entropy, and peristimulus phase-locking were compared across stimulus pulse train frequencies ranging from 10 to 130 Hz. Although VPLo-DBS modulated the spike rates of 20-50% of individual M1 cells in a frequency-dependent manner, the population-level average spike rate only weakly depended on stimulation frequency. In contrast, the population-level entropy measure showed a pronounced decrease with high-frequency stimulation, caused by a subpopulation of cells that exhibited strong phase-locking and general spike-pattern regularization. Contrarily, low-frequency stimulation induced an entropy increase (spike-pattern disordering) in a relatively large portion of the recorded population, which diminished with higher stimulation frequencies. These results also suggest that changes in phase-locking and spike-pattern entropy are not necessarily equivalent pattern phenomena, but rather that they should both be weighed when quantifying stimulation-induced spike-pattern changes.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The network mechanisms of thalamic deep brain stimulation (DBS) are not well understood at the cellular level. This study investigated the neuronal firing rate and pattern changes in the motor cortex resulting from stimulation of the cerebellar-receiving area of the motor thalamus. We showed that there is a nonintuitive relationship between general entropy-based spike-pattern measures and phase-locked regularization to DBS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward M Bello
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis
| | - Filippo Agnesi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis
| | - Yizi Xiao
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis
| | - Joan Dao
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis
| | - Matthew D Johnson
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.,Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis
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