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Ficca G, De Rosa O, Giangrande D, Mazzei T, Marzolo S, Albinni B, Coppola A, Lustro A, Conte F. Quantitative-Qualitative Assessment of Dream Reports in Schizophrenia and Their Correlations with Illness Severity. Brain Sci 2024; 14:568. [PMID: 38928568 PMCID: PMC11201908 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci14060568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2024] [Revised: 05/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Positive symptoms of schizophrenia have been proposed to be an intrusion of dreaming in wakefulness; conversely, psychotic patients' abnormal cognitive and behavioral features could overflow into sleep, so that their dreams would differ from those of healthy people. Here we assess this hypothesis by comparing dream features of 46 patients affected by schizophrenic spectrum disorders to those of 28 healthy controls. In patients, we also investigated correlations of dream variables with symptom severity and verbal fluency. Overall, patients reported fewer and shorter dreams, with a general impoverishment of content (including characters, settings, interactions) and higher spatiotemporal bizarreness. The number of emotions, mainly negative ones, was lower in patients' reports and correlated inversely with symptom severity. Verbal fluency correlated positively with dream report length and negatively with perceptive bizarreness. In conclusion, our data show a significant impoverishment of dream reports in psychotic patients versus controls. Future research should investigate to what extent this profile of results depends on impaired verbal fluency or on impaired mechanisms of dream generation in this population. Moreover, in line with theories on the role of dreaming in emotion regulation, our data suggest that this function could be impaired in psychoses and related to symptom severity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianluca Ficca
- Department of Psychology, University of Campania “L. Vanvitelli”, 81100 Caserta, Italy; (G.F.); (O.D.R.); (D.G.); (T.M.); (B.A.); (A.C.); (A.L.)
| | - Oreste De Rosa
- Department of Psychology, University of Campania “L. Vanvitelli”, 81100 Caserta, Italy; (G.F.); (O.D.R.); (D.G.); (T.M.); (B.A.); (A.C.); (A.L.)
- Dermatology Unit, Department of Mental and Physical Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Campania “L. Vanvitelli”, 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Davide Giangrande
- Department of Psychology, University of Campania “L. Vanvitelli”, 81100 Caserta, Italy; (G.F.); (O.D.R.); (D.G.); (T.M.); (B.A.); (A.C.); (A.L.)
| | - Tommaso Mazzei
- Department of Psychology, University of Campania “L. Vanvitelli”, 81100 Caserta, Italy; (G.F.); (O.D.R.); (D.G.); (T.M.); (B.A.); (A.C.); (A.L.)
- Residential Community for Therapy and Rehabilitation “Al di là dei sogni (Beyond Dreams)”, 81037 Sessa Aurunca, Italy;
| | - Salvatore Marzolo
- Residential Community for Therapy and Rehabilitation “Al di là dei sogni (Beyond Dreams)”, 81037 Sessa Aurunca, Italy;
- Mental Health Unit 15, Local Health Authority 1, 81016 Piedimonte Matese, Italy
| | - Benedetta Albinni
- Department of Psychology, University of Campania “L. Vanvitelli”, 81100 Caserta, Italy; (G.F.); (O.D.R.); (D.G.); (T.M.); (B.A.); (A.C.); (A.L.)
| | - Alessia Coppola
- Department of Psychology, University of Campania “L. Vanvitelli”, 81100 Caserta, Italy; (G.F.); (O.D.R.); (D.G.); (T.M.); (B.A.); (A.C.); (A.L.)
| | - Alessio Lustro
- Department of Psychology, University of Campania “L. Vanvitelli”, 81100 Caserta, Italy; (G.F.); (O.D.R.); (D.G.); (T.M.); (B.A.); (A.C.); (A.L.)
| | - Francesca Conte
- Department of Psychology, University of Campania “L. Vanvitelli”, 81100 Caserta, Italy; (G.F.); (O.D.R.); (D.G.); (T.M.); (B.A.); (A.C.); (A.L.)
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2
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Arıkan MK, Uysal Ö, Gıca Ş, Orhan Ö, İlhan R, Esmeray MT, Bakay H, Metin B, Pogarell O, Turan Ş. REM parameters in drug-free major depressive disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep Med Rev 2024; 73:101876. [PMID: 37995418 DOI: 10.1016/j.smrv.2023.101876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2023] [Revised: 11/11/2023] [Accepted: 11/13/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023]
Abstract
Previous studies revealed that rapid eye movement (REM) parameters, such as REM latency (RL) and REM density (RD) could be used as electrophysiological markers of depression. Yet these finding should be re-tested in a comorbid-free and drug-free sample. The present systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted to investigate whether drug-free and comorbid-free patients with unipolar depression differentiate from controls with respect to the RL and RD. The PubMed and Web of Science databases were screened from inception to 23 January 2023 for case-control studies comparing RL and RD of patients with unipolar depression and controls. The primary outcome was the standard mean difference. The data were fitted with a random-effects model. Meta-regressions were conducted to investigate patient characteristics and effect size. Publication bias assessment was checked by Egger's Regression and funnel plot asymmetry. Among 43 articles accepted as eligible, 46 RL and 22 RD measurements were included in the meta-analysis. The results indicated shortened RL and increased RD in the patient group than controls. Neither Egger's regression nor funnel plot asymmetry were significant for publication bias. In conclusion, our results tested within drug-free and comorbid-free samples are in line with the literature.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ömer Uysal
- Istanbul University Cerrahpaşa, Cerrahpaşa Faculty of Medicine, Department of Biostatistics, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Şakir Gıca
- Department of Mental Health and Disease, MERAM School of Medicine, Necmettin Erbakan University, Konya, Turkey
| | - Özden Orhan
- Kemal Arıkan Psychiatry Clinic, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Reyhan İlhan
- Kemal Arıkan Psychiatry Clinic, Istanbul, Turkey
| | | | - Hasan Bakay
- Department of Mental Health and Disease, MERAM School of Medicine, Necmettin Erbakan University, Konya, Turkey
| | - Barış Metin
- Department of Neurology, Medical Faculty, Uskudar University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Oliver Pogarell
- Department of Psychiatry, Division of Clinical Neurophysiology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Şenol Turan
- Istanbul University Cerrahpasa, Department of Psychiatry, Cerrahpasa Medical School, Istanbul, Turkey
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3
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Wahid S, Alqahtani A, Khan RA. Cucurbita maxima Seeds Reduce Anxiety and Depression and Improve Memory. Behav Neurol 2023; 2023:7509937. [PMID: 37006627 PMCID: PMC10060065 DOI: 10.1155/2023/7509937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2022] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 04/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The current study was planned to assess the neuropharmacological benefits of the Cucurbita maxima seed. These seeds have been conventionally used for the nutritional as well as amelioration of various diseases. However, there was a need to provide a pharmacological basis for such use. Four central nervous system-related functions, that is, anxiety, depression, memory, and motor coordination, were evaluated, and the levels of brain biogenic amines were also assessed. Anxiety was evaluated through selected experimental models, such as light and dark apparatus, elevated plus maze, head dip, and open field test. The head dip test was mainly used to assess exploratory behavior. Depression was assessed by two animal models, that is, the forced swim test and tail suspension test. Memory and learning ability were assessed by the passive avoidance test, stationary rod apparatus, and Morris's water maze test. Motor skilled learning was assessed by stationary rod and rotarod apparatus. Reversed phase high-pressure liquid chromatography was used to determine biogenic amine levels. Results reveal that C. maxima exhibited anxiolytic and antidepressant effects with memory improvement. There was a reduction in the weight of the animal following chronic administration. Furthermore, no remarkable effects were observed on motor coordination. Norepinephrine was found elevated, which may be linked to its antidepressant effects. These biological effects of C. maxima may be due to the presence of secondary metabolites, such as cucurbitacin, beta-sitosterol, polyphenolic compounds, citrulline, kaempferol, arginine, β-carotene, quercetin, and other antioxidants. The outcomes of the present study authenticate that the chronic use of C. maxima seeds reduces the intensity of neurological problems like anxiety and depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahana Wahid
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Benazir Bhutto Shaheed University Lyari, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Ali Alqahtani
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, King Khalid University, Guraiger, Abha 62529, Saudi Arabia
| | - Rafeeq Alam Khan
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Ziauddin University Education City, Link Road, Karachi, Pakistan
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Wang Z, Zhang K, He L, Sun J, Liu J, Hu L. Associations between frequent nightmares, nightmare distress and depressive symptoms in adolescent psychiatric patients. Sleep Med 2023; 106:17-24. [PMID: 37030034 DOI: 10.1016/j.sleep.2023.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Revised: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Nightmares are common in patients with psychiatric disorders. Patients with psychiatric disorders often experience depressive symptoms. Nightmares have been associated with depressive symptoms among adolescents. Previous studies have explored the mediating role of nightmare distress in the relationship between frequent nightmares and depressive symptoms in the general adolescent population. We aimed to explore the associations between frequent nightmares, nightmare distress, and depressive symptoms in Chinese adolescent patients with psychiatric disorders. METHODS A total of 408 adolescents participated in this study. A self-administered questionnaire was used to measure nightmare frequency, nightmare distress, depressive symptoms, and covariates. Linear regressions and mediation analyses were performed to examine the associations between nightmare frequency, nightmare distress, and depressive symptoms. RESULTS The mean age of participants was 15.31 ± 1.88 years, and 152 (37.3%) were boys. The prevalence of frequent nightmares in adolescent patients with psychosis was 49.3%. Girls reported more frequent nightmares and had significantly higher scores of depressive symptoms and nightmare distress. Patients with frequent nightmares had higher scores of nightmare distress and depressive symptoms. Frequent nightmares and nightmare distress were significantly associated with depressive symptoms. Nightmare distress had a full mediating effect on the correlation between frequent nightmares and depressive symptoms. CONCLUSIONS In Chinese adolescent patients with psychiatric disorders, frequent nightmares and nightmare distress were associated with depressive symptoms, whereas the association between frequent nightmares and depressive symptoms was mediated by nightmare distress. Interventions for nightmare distress may be more useful in reducing depressive symptoms in adolescent patients with psychiatric disorders.
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Forest G, Sabourin C, Pétrin R, Robidoux R, De Koninck J. Dream content and depressive symptoms during pregnancy and postpartum. JOURNAL OF AFFECTIVE DISORDERS REPORTS 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jadr.2023.100480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
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6
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Murillo-Rodríguez E, Coronado-Álvarez A, López-Muciño LA, Pastrana-Trejo JC, Viana-Torre G, Barberena JJ, Soriano-Nava DM, García-García F. Neurobiology of dream activity and effects of stimulants on dreams. Curr Top Med Chem 2022; 22:1280-1295. [PMID: 35761491 DOI: 10.2174/1568026622666220627162032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2021] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The sleep-wake cycle is the result of the activity of a multiple neurobiological network interaction. Dreaming feature is one interesting sleep phenomena that represents sensorial components, mostly visual perceptions, accompanied with intense emotions. Further complexity has been added to the topic of the neurobiological mechanism of dreams generation by the current data that suggests the influence of drugs on dream generation. Here, we discuss the review on some of the neurobiological mechanism of the regulation of dream activity, with special emphasis on the effects of stimulants on dreaming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Murillo-Rodríguez
- Laboratorio de Neurociencias Moleculares e Integrativas, Escuela de Medicina, División Ciencias de la Salud. Universidad Anáhuac Mayab. Mérida, Yucatán. México.,Intercontinental Neuroscience Research Group
| | - Astrid Coronado-Álvarez
- Laboratorio de Neurociencias Moleculares e Integrativas, Escuela de Medicina, División Ciencias de la Salud. Universidad Anáhuac Mayab. Mérida, Yucatán. México.,Intercontinental Neuroscience Research Group
| | - Luis Angel López-Muciño
- Health Sciences Program. Health Sciences Institute. Veracruzana University. Xalapa. Veracruz. Mexico
| | - José Carlos Pastrana-Trejo
- Laboratorio de Neurociencias Moleculares e Integrativas, Escuela de Medicina, División Ciencias de la Salud. Universidad Anáhuac Mayab. Mérida, Yucatán. México.,Intercontinental Neuroscience Research Group
| | - Gerardo Viana-Torre
- Laboratorio de Neurociencias Moleculares e Integrativas, Escuela de Medicina, División Ciencias de la Salud. Universidad Anáhuac Mayab. Mérida, Yucatán. México.,Intercontinental Neuroscience Research Group
| | - Juan José Barberena
- Laboratorio de Neurociencias Moleculares e Integrativas, Escuela de Medicina, División Ciencias de la Salud. Universidad Anáhuac Mayab. Mérida, Yucatán. México.,Intercontinental Neuroscience Research Group.,Escuela de Psicología, División Ciencias de la Salud. Universidad Anáhuac Mayab. Mérida, Yucatán. México
| | - Daniela Marcia Soriano-Nava
- Laboratorio de Neurociencias Moleculares e Integrativas, Escuela de Medicina, División Ciencias de la Salud. Universidad Anáhuac Mayab. Mérida, Yucatán. México.,Intercontinental Neuroscience Research Group
| | - Fabio García-García
- Intercontinental Neuroscience Research Group.,Health Sciences Program. Health Sciences Institute. Veracruzana University. Xalapa. Veracruz. Mexico
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Circadian and Sleep Modulation of Dreaming in Women with Major Depression. Clocks Sleep 2022; 4:114-128. [PMID: 35323166 PMCID: PMC8947272 DOI: 10.3390/clockssleep4010012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Revised: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Growing evidence indicates an association between reduced dream recall and depressive symptomatology. Here, we tested the prediction that reduced dream recall in individuals experiencing major depressive disorder (MDD) is due to alterations in circadian and sleep processes. Nine young healthy women (20−31 years) and eight young unmedicated women (20−31 years) diagnosed with MDD underwent a 40 h multiple nap protocol with ten alternating cycles of 150 min wake/75 min sleep under a stringently controlled circadian laboratory protocol. After each nap, we assessed dream recall, number of dreams and dream emotional load using the Sleep Mentation Questionnaire. Dream recall and the number of dreams did not significantly differ between groups (pFDR > 0.1). However, there was a significant difference for the dream emotional load (interaction of “Group” vs. “Time”, pFDR = 0.01). Women with MDD had a two-fold higher (negative) emotional load as compared to healthy control women, particularly after naps during the circadian night (between ~22:00 h and ~05:00 h; Tukey−Kramer test, p = 0.009). Furthermore, higher (negative) dream emotional load was associated with impaired mood levels in both groups (R2 = 0.71; p < 0.001). Our findings suggest that the circadian and sleep modulation of dreaming may remain intact in unmedicated young women experiencing MDD.
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de la Chapelle A, Frauscher B, Valomon A, Ruby PM, Peter-Derex L. Relationship Between Epilepsy and Dreaming: Current Knowledge, Hypotheses, and Perspectives. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:717078. [PMID: 34552464 PMCID: PMC8451887 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.717078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The interactions between epilepsy and sleep are numerous and the impact of epilepsy on cognition is well documented. Epilepsy is therefore likely to influence dreaming as one sleep-related cognitive activity. The frequency of dream recall is indeed decreased in patients with epilepsy, especially in those with primary generalized seizures. The content of dreams is also disturbed in epilepsy patients, being more negative and with more familiar settings. While several confounding factors (anti-seizure medications, depression and anxiety disorders, cognitive impairment) may partly account for these changes, some observations suggest an effect of seizures themselves on dreams. Indeed, the incorporation of seizure symptoms in dream content has been described, concomitant or not with a focal epileptic discharge during sleep, suggesting that epilepsy might directly or indirectly interfere with dreaming. These observations, together with current knowledge on dream neurophysiology and the links between epilepsy and sleep, suggest that epilepsy may impact not only wake- but also sleep-related cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Birgit Frauscher
- Analytical Neurophysiology Lab, Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Amandine Valomon
- Lyon Neuroscience Research Center, CNRS UMR 5292, INSERM U1028-PAM Team, Lyon, France
| | - Perrine Marie Ruby
- Lyon Neuroscience Research Center, CNRS UMR 5292, INSERM U1028-PAM Team, Lyon, France
| | - Laure Peter-Derex
- Lyon Neuroscience Research Center, CNRS UMR 5292, INSERM U1028-PAM Team, Lyon, France.,Center for Sleep Medicine and Respiratory Diseases, Lyon University Hospital, Lyon 1 University, Lyon, France
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Gallagher SP, Incelli NA. "Pandemic Dreams are Susceptible to Priming and Unrelated
to COVID-19 Exposure". JOURNAL OF EVIDENCE-BASED PSYCHOTHERAPIES 2021. [DOI: 10.24193/jebp.2021.2.18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
"Surveys that have recruited participants through social media and news
websites have led researchers and clinicians to conclude that the COVID-19
pandemic has precipitated a parallel pandemic of nightmares that reflect
pandemic-induced psychological distress. Many of these surveys were
administered to participants who intentionally opted into research knowing
that the investigators were soliciting pandemic dream reports. This
investigation surveyed 193 college students who were blind to the purpose
of the study to assess the prevalence of pandemic dreams and to determine if
the wording of the questions could shape responses. Fewer than half could
recall a dream. Reports were brief, susceptible to priming, and unrelated to
personal SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 exposure. Although this sample was not
truly random, it is probably more representative of the US population than
those recruited through thematic websites. Clinicians should be aware of
problems inherent in survey research and understand how their words can
shape client responses."
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nicholas A. Incelli
- Department of Psychology, Millersville University of Pennsylvania, Millersville, PA, USA
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Scarpelli S, Alfonsi V, Mangiaruga A, Musetti A, Quattropani MC, Lenzo V, Freda MF, Lemmo D, Vegni E, Borghi L, Saita E, Cattivelli R, Castelnuovo G, Plazzi G, De Gennaro L, Franceschini C. Pandemic nightmares: Effects on dream activity of the COVID-19 lockdown in Italy. J Sleep Res 2021; 30:e13300. [PMID: 33547703 PMCID: PMC7994972 DOI: 10.1111/jsr.13300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Revised: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
COVID‐19 has critically impacted the world. Recent works have found substantial changes in sleep and mental health during the COVID‐19 pandemic. Dreams could give us crucial information about people's well‐being, so here we have directly investigated the consequences of lockdown on the oneiric activity in a large Italian sample: 5,988 adults completed a web‐survey during lockdown. We investigated sociodemographic and COVID‐19‐related information, sleep quality (by the Medical Outcomes Study‐Sleep Scale), mental health (by the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scales), dream and nightmare frequency, and related emotional aspects (by the Mannheim Dream Questionnaire). Comparisons between our sample and a population‐based sample revealed that Italians are having more frequent nightmares and dreams during the pandemic. A multiple logistic regression model showed the predictors of high dream recall (young age, female gender, not having children, sleep duration) and high nightmare frequency (young age, female gender, modification of napping, sleep duration, intrasleep wakefulness, sleep problem index, anxiety, depression). Moreover, we found higher emotional features of dream activity in workers who have stopped working, in people who have relatives/friends infected by or who have died from COVID‐19 and in subjects who have changed their sleep habits. Our findings point to the fact that the predictors of high dream recall and nightmares are consistent with the continuity between sleep mentation and daily experiences. According to the arousal‐retrieval model, we found that poor sleep predicts a high nightmare frequency. We suggest monitoring dream changes during the epidemic, and also considering the implications for clinical treatment and prevention of mental and sleep disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serena Scarpelli
- IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy.,Department of Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Anastasia Mangiaruga
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Alessandro Musetti
- Department of Humanities, Social Sciences and Cultural Industries, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | | | - Vittorio Lenzo
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | | | - Daniela Lemmo
- Department of Humanistic Studies, Federico II University, Naples, Italy
| | - Elena Vegni
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Lidia Borghi
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Emanuela Saita
- Department of Psychology, Catholic University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Roberto Cattivelli
- Department of Psychology, Catholic University of Milan, Milan, Italy.,Psychology Research Laboratory, Istituto Auxologico Italiano IRCCS, Verbania, Italy
| | - Gianluca Castelnuovo
- Department of Psychology, Catholic University of Milan, Milan, Italy.,Psychology Research Laboratory, Istituto Auxologico Italiano IRCCS, Verbania, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Plazzi
- IRCCS Istituto delle Scienze Neurologiche di Bologna, Bologna, Italy.,Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Luigi De Gennaro
- IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy.,Department of Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
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