Case Report: Deep Cerebellar Stimulation for Tremor and Dystonia

Cerebellar Functions Beyond Movement and Learning

The cerebellum has a well-established role in controlling motor functions, including coordination, posture, and the learning of skilled movements. The mechanisms for how it carries out motor behavior remain under intense investigation. Interestingly though, in recent years the mechanisms of cerebellar function have faced additional scrutiny since nonmotor behaviors may also be controlled by the cerebellum. With such complexity arising, there is now a pressing need to better understand how cerebellar structure, function, and behavior intersect to influence behaviors that are dynamically called upon as an animal experiences its environment. Here, we discuss recent experimental work that frames possible neural mechanisms for how the cerebellum shapes disparate behaviors and why its dysfunction is catastrophic in hereditary and acquired conditions-both motor and nonmotor. For these reasons, the cerebellum might be the ideal therapeutic target.

Cerebellar nuclei cells produce distinct pathogenic spike signatures in mouse models of ataxia, dystonia, and tremor

The cerebellum contributes to a diverse array of motor conditions, including ataxia, dystonia, and tremor. The neural substrates that encode this diversity are unclear. Here, we tested whether the neural spike activity of cerebellar output neurons is distinct between movement disorders with different impairments, generalizable across movement disorders with similar impairments, and capable of causing distinct movement impairments. Using in vivo awake recordings as input data, we trained a supervised classifier model to differentiate the spike parameters between mouse models for ataxia, dystonia, and tremor. The classifier model correctly assigned mouse phenotypes based on single-neuron signatures. Spike signatures were shared across etiologically distinct but phenotypically similar disease models. Mimicking these pathophysiological spike signatures with optogenetics induced the predicted motor impairments in otherwise healthy mice. These data show that distinct spike signatures promote the behavioral presentation of cerebellar diseases.

Striatal parvalbumin interneurons are activated in a mouse model of cerebellar dystonia

Dystonia is thought to arise from abnormalities in the motor loop of the basal ganglia; however, there is an ongoing debate regarding cerebellar involvement. We adopted an established cerebellar dystonia mouse model by injecting ouabain to examine the contribution of the cerebellum. Initially, we examined whether the entopeduncular nucleus (EPN), substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr), globus pallidus externus (GPe) and striatal neurons were activated in the model. Next, we examined whether administration of a dopamine D1 receptor agonist and dopamine D2 receptor antagonist or selective ablation of striatal parvalbumin (PV, encoded by Pvalb)-expressing interneurons could modulate the involuntary movements of the mice. The cerebellar dystonia mice had a higher number of cells positive for c-fos (encoded by Fos) in the EPN, SNr and GPe, as well as a higher positive ratio of c-fos in striatal PV interneurons, than those in control mice. Furthermore, systemic administration of combined D1 receptor agonist and D2 receptor antagonist and selective ablation of striatal PV interneurons relieved the involuntary movements of the mice. Abnormalities in the motor loop of the basal ganglia could be crucially involved in cerebellar dystonia, and modulating PV interneurons might provide a novel treatment strategy.

Loss of Efficacy in Ventral Intermediate Nucleus Stimulation for Essential Tremor

OBJECTIVE

The primary aim of this study is to report long-term outcomes associated with deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the ventral intermediate nucleus (VIM) performed at our institution. We further aimed to elicit the factors associated with loss of efficacy and to discuss the need for exploring and establishing reliable rescue targets.

METHODS

To study long-term outcomes, we performed a retrospective chart review and extracted tremor scores of 43 patients who underwent VIM DBS lead implantation for essential tremor at our center. We further evaluated factors that could influence outcomes over time, including demographics, body mass index, duration of follow-up, degree of parenchymal atrophy indexed by the global cortical atrophy scale, and third ventricular width.

RESULTS

In this cohort, tremor scores on the latest follow-up (median 52.7 months) were noted to be worse than initial postoperative scores in 56% of DBS leads. Furthermore, 14% of leads were associated with clinically significant loss of benefit. Factors including the length of time since the lead implantation, age at the time of surgery, sex, body mass index, preoperative atrophy, and third ventricular width were not predictive of long-term outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study identified a substantial subgroup of VIM-DBS patient who experienced a gradual decline in treatment efficacy over time. We propose that this phenomenon can be attributed primarily to habituation and disease progression. Furthermore, we discuss the need to establish reliable and effective rescue targets for this subpopulation of patients, with ventral-oralis complex and dentate nucleus emerging as potential candidates.

Protocol for combined N-of-1 trials to assess cerebellar neurostimulation for movement disorders in children and young adults with dyskinetic cerebral palsy

BACKGROUND

Movement and tone disorders in children and young adults with cerebral palsy are a great source of disability. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) of basal ganglia targets has a major role in the treatment of isolated dystonias, but its efficacy in dyskinetic cerebral palsy (DCP) is lower, due to structural basal ganglia and thalamic damage and lack of improvement of comorbid choreoathetosis and spasticity. The cerebellum is an attractive target for DBS in DCP since it is frequently spared from hypoxic ischemic damage, it has a significant role in dystonia network models, and small studies have shown promise of dentate stimulation in improving CP-related movement and tone disorders.

METHODS

Ten children and young adults with DCP and disabling movement disorders with or without spasticity will undergo bilateral DBS in the dorsal dentate nucleus, with the most distal contact ending in the superior cerebellar peduncle. We will implant Medtronic Percept, a bidirectional neurostimulator that can sense and store brain activity and deliver DBS therapy. The efficacy of cerebellar DBS in improving quality of life and motor outcomes will be tested by a series of N-of-1 clinical trials. Each N-of-1 trial will consist of three blocks, each consisting of one month of effective stimulation and one month of sham stimulation in a random order with weekly motor and quality of life scales as primary and secondary outcomes. In addition, we will characterize abnormal patterns of cerebellar oscillatory activity measured by local field potentials from the intracranial electrodes related to clinical assessments and wearable monitors. Pre- and 12-month postoperative volumetric structural and functional MRI and diffusion tensor imaging will be used to identify candidate imaging markers of baseline disease severity and response to DBS.

DISCUSSION

Our goal is to test a cerebellar neuromodulation therapy that produces meaningful changes in function and well-being for people with CP, obtain a mechanistic understanding of the underlying brain network disorder, and identify physiological and imaging-based predictors of outcomes useful in planning further studies.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT06122675, first registered November 7, 2023.

Cerebellar nuclei cells produce distinct pathogenic spike signatures in mouse models of ataxia, dystonia, and tremor

The cerebellum contributes to a diverse array of motor conditions including ataxia, dystonia, and tremor. The neural substrates that encode this diversity are unclear. Here, we tested whether the neural spike activity of cerebellar output neurons is distinct between movement disorders with different impairments, generalizable across movement disorders with similar impairments, and capable of causing distinct movement impairments. Using in vivo awake recordings as input data, we trained a supervised classifier model to differentiate the spike parameters between mouse models for ataxia, dystonia, and tremor. The classifier model correctly assigned mouse phenotypes based on single neuron signatures. Spike signatures were shared across etiologically distinct but phenotypically similar disease models. Mimicking these pathophysiological spike signatures with optogenetics induced the predicted motor impairments in otherwise healthy mice. These data show that distinct spike signatures promote the behavioral presentation of cerebellar diseases.

A Nonsystematic Review of the Features of Pharmacotherapy in the Elderly at the Stage of Taking Medications

The human body is subservient to the age-related changes that affect not only the outer appearance but also organs and tissues. They also concern the processes of pharmacokinetics and dynamics. This means that the absorption, distribution, and metabolism of drugs used by an elderly patient will be slowed down. Therefore, it becomes necessary to prescribe a special dosing regimen for older people. An actual problem is also that, with age, many patients require more drugs than young people. This increases the risk of side effects because many drugs are difficult to combine with each other. Pharmacy of our time is a science that is constantly developing and modernizing, which allows changing therapy for the better: prescribing drugs in smaller quantities, with a smaller range of adverse reactions and a better effect. The aim of the work is to analyze the impact and relationship of older age on the pharmacotherapy of patients, as well as the risks of drug-induced diseases. To carry out this work, such research methods as analysis, synthesis, comparative analysis, classification, analogy, abstraction, induction, and generalization were used. The features of the stages of pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics in the elderly were considered; we studied the data of clinical studies and literature in geriatrics; and the effects of a combination or increase in the dosage of drugs have been noted. After the collection of research data and the analysis, it turned out that it is real and necessary to avoid the negative consequences of pharmacotherapy in elderly and senile patients. Considering the natural age-related changes in the condition and functioning of organs and systems, constantly monitoring the effectiveness of drugs and undesirable reactions of the body to them, adjusting treatment protocols will have a favorable result and help optimize pharmacotherapy for the elderly and reduce the risk of side effects and diseases caused by medications.

Disrupted sleep in dystonia depends on cerebellar function but not motor symptoms in mice

Although dystonia is the third most common movement disorder, patients often also experience debilitating nonmotor defects including impaired sleep. The cerebellum is a central component of a "dystonia network" that plays various roles in sleep regulation. Importantly, the primary driver of sleep impairments in dystonia remains poorly understood. The cerebellum, along with other nodes in the motor circuit, could disrupt sleep. However, it is unclear how the cerebellum might alter sleep and mobility. To disentangle the impact of cerebellar dysfunction on motion and sleep, we generated two mouse genetic models of dystonia that have overlapping cerebellar circuit miswiring but show differing motor phenotype severity: Ptf1a ^Cre ;Vglut2 ^fx/fx and Pdx1 ^Cre ;Vglut2 ^fx/fx mice. In both models, excitatory climbing fiber to Purkinje cell neurotransmission is blocked, but only the Ptf1a ^Cre ;Vglut2 ^fx/fx mice have severe twisting. Using in vivo ECoG and EMG recordings we found that both mutants spend greater time awake and in NREM sleep at the expense of REM sleep. The increase in awake time is driven by longer awake bouts rather than an increase in bout number. We also found a longer latency to reach REM in both mutants, which is similar to what is reported in human dystonia. We uncovered independent but parallel roles for cerebellar circuit dysfunction and motor defects in promoting sleep quality versus posture impairments in dystonia.

Synaptic Dysfunction in Dystonia: Update From Experimental Models

Dystonia, the third most common movement disorder, refers to a heterogeneous group of neurological diseases characterized by involuntary, sustained or intermittent muscle contractions resulting in repetitive twisting movements and abnormal postures. In the last few years, several studies on animal models helped expand our knowledge of the molecular mechanisms underlying dystonia. These findings have reinforced the notion that the synaptic alterations found mainly in the basal ganglia and cerebellum, including the abnormal neurotransmitters signalling, receptor trafficking and synaptic plasticity, are a common hallmark of different forms of dystonia. In this review, we focus on the major contribution provided by rodent models of DYT-TOR1A, DYT-THAP1, DYT-GNAL, DYT/ PARK-GCH1, DYT/PARK-TH and DYT-SGCE dystonia, which reveal that an abnormal motor network and synaptic dysfunction represent key elements in the pathophysiology of dystonia.

The Dystonias

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This article discusses the most recent findings regarding the diagnosis, classification, and management of genetic and idiopathic dystonia.

RECENT FINDINGS

A new approach to classifying dystonia has been created with the aim to increase the recognition and diagnosis of dystonia. Molecular biology and genetic studies have identified several genes and biological pathways involved in dystonia.

SUMMARY

Dystonia is a common movement disorder involving abnormal, often twisting, postures and is a challenging condition to diagnose. The pathophysiology of dystonia involves abnormalities in brain motor networks in the context of genetic factors. Dystonia has genetic, idiopathic, and acquired forms, with a wide phenotypic spectrum, and is a common feature in complex neurologic disorders. Dystonia can be isolated or combined with another movement disorder and may be focal, segmental, multifocal, or generalized in distribution, with some forms only occurring during the performance of specific tasks (task-specific dystonia). Dystonia is classified by clinical characteristics and presumed etiology. The management of dystonia involves accurate diagnosis, followed by treatment with botulinum toxin injections, oral medications, and surgical therapies (mainly deep brain stimulation), as well as pathogenesis-directed treatments, including the prospect of disease-modifying or gene therapies.

Deep Brain Stimulation for Pediatric Dystonia: A Review of the Literature and Suggested Programming Algorithm

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is an established intervention for use in pediatric movement disorders, especially dystonia. Although multiple publications have provided guidelines for deep brain stimulation patient selection and programming in adults, there are no evidence-based or consensus statements published for pediatrics. The result is lack of standardized care and underutilization of this effective treatment. To this end, we assembled a focus group of 13 pediatric movement disorder specialists and 1 neurosurgeon experienced in pediatric deep brain stimulation to review recent literature and current practices and propose a standardized approach to candidate selection, implantation target site selection, and programming algorithms. For pediatric dystonia, we provide algorithms for (1) programming for initial session and follow-up sessions, and (2) troubleshooting side effects encountered during programming. We discuss common side effects, how they present, and recommendations for management. This topical review serves as a resource for movement disorders specialists interested in using deep brain stimulation for pediatric dystonia.

Increased movement-related signals in both basal ganglia and cerebellar output pathways in two children with dystonia

The contribution of different brain regions to movement abnormalities in children with dystonia is unknown. Three awake subjects undergoing depth electrode implantation for assessments of potential deep brain recording targets performed a rhythmic figure-8 drawing task. Two subjects had dystonia, one was undergoing testing for treatment of Tourette Syndrome and had neither dystonia nor abnormal movements during testing. Movement-related signals were evaluated by determining the magnitude of task-related frequency components. Brain signals were recorded in globus pallidus internus (GPi), the ventral oralis anterior/posterior (VoaVop) and the ventral intermediate (Vim) nuclei of the thalamus. In comparison to the subject without dystonia, both children with dystonia showed increased task-related activity in GPi and Vim. This finding is consistent with a role of both basal ganglia and cerebellar outputs in the pathogenesis of dystonia. Our results further suggest that frequency analysis of brain recordings during cyclic movements may be a useful tool for analysis of the presence of movement-related signals in various brain regions.

Deep cerebellar stimulation enhances cognitive recovery after prefrontal traumatic brain injury in rodent

Functional outcome following traumatic brain injury (TBI) varies greatly, with approximately half of those who survive suffering long-term motor and cognitive deficits despite contemporary rehabilitation efforts. We have previously shown that deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the lateral cerebellar nucleus (LCN) enhances rehabilitation of motor deficits that result from brain injury. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the efficacy of LCN DBS on recovery from rodent TBI that uniquely models the injury location, chronicity and resultant cognitive symptoms observed in most human TBI patients. We used controlled cortical impact (CCI) to produce an injury that targeted the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC-CCI) bilaterally, resulting in cognitive deficits. Unilateral LCN DBS electrode implantation was performed 6 weeks post-injury. Electrical stimulation started at week eight post-injury and continued for an additional 4 weeks. Cognition was evaluated using baited Y-maze, novel object recognition task and Barnes maze. Post-mortem analyses, including Western Blot and immunohistochemistry, were conducted to elucidate the cellular and molecular mechanisms of recovery. We found that mPFC-CCI produced significant cognitive deficits compared to pre-injury and naïve animals. Moreover, LCN DBS treatment significantly enhanced the long-term memory process and executive functions of applying strategy. Analyses of post-mortem tissues showed significantly greater expression of CaMKIIα, BDNF and p75NTR across perilesional cortex and higher expression of postsynaptic formations in LCN DBS-treated animals compared to untreated. Overall, these data suggest that LCN DBS is an effective treatment of cognitive deficits that result from TBI, possibly by activation of ascending, glutamatergic projections to thalamus and subsequent upregulation of thalamocortical activity that engages neuroplastic mechanisms for facilitation of functional re-organization. These results support a role for cerebellar output neuromodulation as a novel therapeutic approach to enhance rehabilitation for patients with chronic, post-TBI cognitive deficits that are unresponsive to traditional rehabilitative efforts.

Direct cerebello-striatal loop in dystonia as a possible new target for deep brain stimulation: A revised view of subcortical pathways involved

Dystonia is the second most common movement disorder next to tremor, but its pathophysiology remains unsettled. Its therapeutic measures include anti-cholingerics and other medications, in addition to botulinum neurotoxin injections, and stereotaxic surgery including deep brain stimulation (DBS), but there still remain a number of patients resistant to the therapy. Evidence has been accumulating suggesting that basal ganglia in association with the cerebellum are playing a pivotal role in pathogenesis. Clinical observations such as sensory tricks and the effects of muscle afferent stimulation and blockage suggest the conflict between the cortical voluntary motor plan and the subcortical motor program or motor subroutine controlling the intended action semi-automatically. In this review, the current understanding of the possible pathways or loops involved in dystonia is presented, and we review promising new targets for Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) including the cerebellum.

Diving into the Subcortex: The Potential of Chronic Subcortical Sensing for Unravelling Basal Ganglia Function and Optimization of Deep Brain STIMULATION

Subcortical structures are a relative neurophysiological 'terra incognita' owing to their location within the skull. While perioperative subcortical sensing has been performed for more than 20 years, the neurophysiology of the basal ganglia in the home setting has remained almost unexplored. However, with the recent advent of implantable pulse generators (IPG) that are able to record neural activity, the opportunity to chronically record local field potentials (LFPs) directly from electrodes implanted for deep brain stimulation opens up. This allows for a breakthrough of chronic subcortical sensing into fundamental research and clinical practice. In this review an extensive overview of the current state of subcortical sensing is provided. The widespread potential of chronic subcortical sensing for investigational and clinical use is discussed. Finally, status and future perspectives of the most promising application of chronic subcortical sensing -i.e., adaptive deep brain stimulation (aDBS)- are discussed in the context of movement disorders. The development of aDBS based on both chronic subcortical and cortical sensing has the potential to dramatically change clinical practice and the life of patients with movement disorders. However, several barriers still stand in the way of clinical implementation. Advancements regarding IPG and lead technology, physiomarkers, and aDBS algorithms as well as harnessing artificial intelligence, multimodality and sensing in the naturalistic setting are needed to bring aDBS to clinical practice.

Quantification of Behavioral Deficits in Developing Mice With Dystonic Behaviors

Converging evidence from structural imaging studies in patients, the function of dystonia-causing genes, and the comorbidity of neuronal and behavioral defects all suggest that pediatric-onset dystonia is a neurodevelopmental disorder. However, to fully appreciate the contribution of altered development to dystonia, a mechanistic understanding of how networks become dysfunctional is required for early-onset dystonia. One current hurdle is that many dystonia animal models are ideally suited for studying adult phenotypes, as the neurodevelopmental features can be subtle or are complicated by broad developmental deficits. Furthermore, most assays that are used to measure dystonia are not suited for developing postnatal mice. Here, we characterize the early-onset dystonia in Ptf1a ^Cre ;Vglut2 ^fl/fl mice, which is caused by the absence of neurotransmission from inferior olive neurons onto cerebellar Purkinje cells. We investigate motor control with two paradigms that examine how altered neural function impacts key neurodevelopmental milestones seen in postnatal pups (postnatal day 7-11). We find that Ptf1a ^Cre ;Vglut2 ^fl/fl mice have poor performance on the negative geotaxis assay and the surface righting reflex. Interestingly, we also find that Ptf1a ^Cre ;Vglut2 ^fl/fl mice make fewer ultrasonic calls when socially isolated from their nests. Ultrasonic calls are often impaired in rodent models of autism spectrum disorders, a condition that can be comorbid with dystonia. Together, we show that these assays can serve as useful quantitative tools for investigating how neural dysfunction during development influences neonatal behaviors in a dystonia mouse model. Our data implicate a shared cerebellar circuit mechanism underlying dystonia-related motor signs and social impairments in mice.

Mechanical properties of brain tissue based on microstructure

Research on the mechanical properties of brain tissue has gradually deepened recently. Two indentation protocols were used here to characterize the mechanical properties of cortical tissues. Further, histological staining was used to explore the correlation between the mechanical properties and microstructure on the basis of the density of cell nuclei and proteoglycan content. No significant difference was observed in transient contact stiffness between the cerebral cortex and cerebellar cortex at the depth interval of 0-600 μm under the cortical surface; however, the average shear modulus of the cerebral cortex was higher than that of the cerebellar cortex. The cerebral cortex responded more quickly to the change in load and released stress more thoroughly than the cerebellar cortex. In addition, the density of cell nuclei was related to both the transient contact stiffness and second time constant of cortical tissues. Proteoglycan content had a more significant impact on the shear modulus, second time constant, and stress relaxation rate of cortical tissues. Exploring mechanical properties thoroughly will provide more detailed mechanical information for future brain chip implantation. Alternatively, linking the mechanical properties of cortical tissues to the microstructure can provide basic data for the design and manufacture of substitute materials for brain tissue.

Case Report: GPi DBS for Non-parkinsonian Midline Tremor: A Normative Connectomic Comparison to a Failed Thalamic DBS

Introduction: The clinical efficacy of deep brain stimulation (DBS) for midline tremor has been heterogenous. Here, we present an atypical case with facial and palatal tremor treated with DBS. We aimed to show the difference between the fibers affected by stimulation of the two targets [globus pallidus interna (GPi) and ventral intermediate (Vim) thalamic nucleus] using a normative connectome analysis. Case Report: A 76-year-old woman with a 4-year history of severe facial and palatal tremor due to craniofacial dystonia. Following a failed bilateral Vim DBS, explantation of preexisting leads and implantation of bilateral GPi leads resulted in the resolution of tremor symptoms following a failed bilateral Vim DBS. We performed a normative connectome analysis using the volume of tissue activated (VTA) as a region of interest. The results revealed that the fiber tracts associated with VTA of GPi DBS had connections with the facial area of the motor cortex while the Vim DBS did not. Conclusion: This case study suggests the possibility that GPi DBS may be considered for midline tremor, and that the normative connectome analysis may possibly offer clues as to the structures underpinning a positive response. We may refine targets for some of the more difficult to control symptoms such as the midline tremor in this case.

Dystonia and Cerebellum: From Bench to Bedside

Dystonia pathogenesis remains unclear; however, findings from basic and clinical research suggest the importance of the interaction between the basal ganglia and cerebellum. After the discovery of disynaptic pathways between the two, much attention has been paid to the cerebellum. Basic research using various dystonia rodent models and clinical studies in dystonia patients continues to provide new pieces of knowledge regarding the role of the cerebellum in dystonia genesis. Herein, we review basic and clinical articles related to dystonia focusing on the cerebellum, and clarify the current understanding of the role of the cerebellum in dystonia pathogenesis. Given the recent evidence providing new hypotheses regarding dystonia pathogenesis, we discuss how the current evidence answers the unsolved clinical questions.