Effects of Gene × Attachment Interaction on Adolescents' Emotion Regulation and Aggressive Hostile Behavior Towards their Mothers during a Computer Game

Longitudinal Influences of DRD4 Polymorphism and Early Maternal Caregiving on Personality Development and Problem Behavior in Middle Childhood and Adolescence

Most studies examining gene-environment effects on self-regulation focus on outcomes early childhood or adulthood. However, only a few studies investigate longitudinal effects during middle childhood and adolescence and compare two domains of early caregiving. In a longitudinal follow-up with a sample of N = 87, we studied the effects of differences in the DRD4 tandem repeat polymorphisms and two domains of early maternal caregiving quality on children's personality development using Block's California Child Q-Set (CCQ) at age six and age 12 and on problem behavior at ages six and seven. Early maternal regulation quality predicted later ego-resiliency and aggressiveness. In addition, significant gene-environment interactions revealed that children with the 7+ DRD4 tandem repeat polymorphism and poor maternal regulation quality in infancy showed lower scores in ego-resiliency and higher scores in ego-undercontrol and CCQ aggressiveness. In contrast, children who had experienced effective maternal regulation in infancy showed a comparable level in personality traits and problem behavior as the DRD4 7- group independent of the levels of maternal regulatory behavior. Similarly, longitudinal caregiving × DRD4 interactions were found for behavior problems in middle childhood, especially for oppositional-aggression, inattentive-hyperactivity, and social competence. Early caregiving effects were only found for maternal regulation quality, but not for maternal responsiveness. Effective early maternal regulation in infancy can moderate the negative effect of DRD4 7+ on children's self-regulation in middle childhood and adolescence. However, maternal responsiveness has no comparable effects. It seems relevant to consider several dimensions of early caregiving and to also measure the environment in more detail in gene-environment studies.

Serotonergic sensitivity alleles moderate relations between attachment security at age three and socioemotional competence at age five

Children with higher socioemotional competence are more likely to build constructive relationships with others and experience more positive adjustment outcomes in later periods. Securely attached children are likely to develop better socioemotional competence, but genetic moderation of associations between attachment and later socioemotional competence has received less attention. Using structural equation modeling, this study analyzed data collected from 1,337 children (51% male) born from 1998 to 2000 in the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing study. The results demonstrated that relations between attachment security at age 3 years and their social competence at age 5 years differed by two serotonin transporter variants (5-HTTLPR, STin2). Effect sizes of these interactions were larger than effect sizes of main effects and the benefit of having sensitive alleles was consistently supported. This implies that having more secure attachment in the early developmental period is advantageous especially for children with minor alleles who have greater environmental sensitivity.

Early caregiving predicts attachment representations in adolescence: findings from two longitudinal studies

BACKGROUND

A growing research base demonstrates that adolescents' construction of secure attachment relationships may underlie successful social and personal relationships and healthy behavioral adjustment. Little is known about the early caregiving origins of adolescent attachment security; this study provides some of the first data on this topic.

METHOD

The relative contribution of early and current caregiving quality to attachment security in adolescence was assessed in two longitudinal studies of a clinic-referred and an at-risk community sample using identical measures (n = 209). Quality of early parent-child relationships at age 3-7 years of age and parent-adolescent relationship quality at approximately 12 years were assessed using observational methods; psychosocial risk was derived from extensive interview and questionnaire assessments; adolescent attachment quality was assessed using a standard attachment interview.

RESULTS

Analyses indicated moderate stability in observed parent-child interaction quality from early childhood to adolescence. Observational ratings of both early childhood and current caregiving quality were significantly associated with adolescent attachment security; however, early caregiver sensitivity was more strongly associated with adolescent attachment security and predicted later attachment security independently from current caregiving quality. Follow-up analyses indicated that this longitudinal prediction was significantly weaker in the clinic than in the at-risk community sample.

CONCLUSIONS

Parental sensitive responding in childhood has enduring effects on attachment representation in adolescence, independent of current parenting relationship quality. These findings provide important new evidence supporting early parenting interventions for promoting youth well-being and adjustment.