"It Don't Mean a Thing if It Ain't Got that Swing"- an Alternative Concept for Understanding the Evolution of Dance and Music in Human Beings

A cross-species framework for classifying sound-movement couplings

Sound and movement are entangled in animal communication. This is obviously true in the case of sound-constituting vibratory movements of biological structures which generate acoustic waves. A little less obvious is that other moving structures produce the energy required to sustain these vibrations. In many species, the respiratory system moves to generate the expiratory flow which powers the sound-constituting movements (sound-powering movements). The sound may acquire additional structure via upper tract movements, such as articulatory movements or head raising (sound-filtering movements). Some movements are not necessary for sound production, but when produced, impinge on the sound-producing process due to weak biomechanical coupling with body parts (e.g., respiratory system) that are necessary for sound production (sound-impinging movements). Animals also produce sounds contingent with movement, requiring neuro-physiological control regimes allowing to flexibly couple movements to a produced sound, or coupling movements to a perceived external sound (sound-contingent movement). Here, we compare and classify the variety of ways sound and movements are coupled in animal communication; our proposed framework should help structure previous and future studies on this topic.

A review of psychological and neuroscientific research on musical groove

When listening to music, we naturally move our bodies rhythmically to the beat, which can be pleasurable and difficult to resist. This pleasurable sensation of wanting to move the body to music has been called "groove." Following pioneering humanities research, psychological and neuroscientific studies have provided insights on associated musical features, behavioral responses, phenomenological aspects, and brain structural and functional correlates of the groove experience. Groove research has advanced the field of music science and more generally informed our understanding of bidirectional links between perception and action, and the role of the motor system in prediction. Activity in motor and reward-related brain networks during music listening is associated with the groove experience, and this neural activity is linked to temporal prediction and learning. This article reviews research on groove as a psychological phenomenon with neurophysiological correlates that link musical rhythm perception, sensorimotor prediction, and reward processing. Promising future research directions range from elucidating specific neural mechanisms to exploring clinical applications and socio-cultural implications of groove.

From distal to proximal to interactive: behavioral and brain synchrony during attraction, courtship, and sexual interaction-implications for clinical assessments of relationship style and quality

INTRODUCTION

Synchronous behaviors between individuals are nonverbal signs of closeness and common purpose. In the flow from initial attraction to intimate sexual interaction, attention and synchrony move from distal to proximal to interactive and are mediated by sensitized activation of neural systems for sexual motivation, arousal, and desire and those that recognize and mimic common facial and body movements between individuals. When reinforced by sexual pleasure and other relationship rewards, this results in the strengthening of attraction and bonding and the display of more common motor patterns. As relationships falter, nonverbal behaviors likely become asynchronous.

OBJECTIVES

To define behavioral, romantic, and sexual synchrony during phases of attraction and how their disruption can be observed and utilized by clinicians to assess individual relationship styles and quality.

METHODS

We review the literature on behavioral and attentional synchrony in humans and animals in an effort to understand experiential and innate mechanisms of synchrony and asynchrony and how they develop, as well as implications for attraction, relationship initiation, maintenance of romantic and sexual closeness, and relationship disintegration.

RESULTS

Evidence is presented that behavioral synchrony and the neural mechanisms that underlie it are vital to relationship formation and satisfaction.

CONCLUSION

Behavioral synchrony helps to create feelings of sexual and romantic synergy, cohesion, and arousal among individuals. Asynchrony is aversive and can spark feelings of discontent, aversion, and jealousy. Thus, observing patterns of nonverbal sexual and romantic synchrony between individuals offers insights into the potential quality of their relationships.

The Association between Music and Language in Children: A State-of-the-Art Review

Music and language are two complex systems that specifically characterize the human communication toolkit. There has been a heated debate in the literature on whether music was an evolutionary precursor to language or a byproduct of cognitive faculties that developed to support language. The present review of existing literature about the relationship between music and language highlights that music plays a critical role in language development in early life. Our findings revealed that musical properties, such as rhythm and melody, could affect language acquisition in semantic processing and grammar, including syntactic aspects and phonological awareness. Overall, the results of the current review shed further light on the complex mechanisms involving the music-language link, highlighting that music plays a central role in the comprehension of language development from the early stages of life.

Effect of Musical Stimulation on Placental Programming and Neurodevelopment Outcome of Preterm Infants: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

The fetal environment is modulated by the placenta, which integrates and transduces information from the maternal environment to the fetal developmental program and adapts rapidly to changes through epigenetic mechanisms that respond to internal (hereditary) and external (environmental and social) signals. Consequently, the fetus corrects the trajectory of own development. During the last trimester of gestation, plasticity shapes the fetal brain, and prematurity can alter the typical developmental trajectories. In this period, prevention through activity-inducing (e.g., music stimulation) interventions are currently tested. The purpose of this review is to describe the potentialities of music exposure on fetus, and on preterm newborns in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit evaluating its influence on neurobehavioral development.

METHODS

Databases were searched from 2010 to 2022 for studies investigating mechanisms of placental epigenetic regulation and effects of music exposure on the fetus and pre-term neonates.

RESULTS

In this case, 28 selected papers were distributed into three research lines: studies on placental epigenetic regulation (13 papers), experimental studies of music stimulation on fetus or newborns (6 papers), and clinical studies on premature babies (9 papers). Placental epigenetic changes of the genes involved in the cortisol and serotonin response resulted associated with different neurobehavioral phenotypes in newborns. Prenatal music stimulation had positive effects on fetus, newborn, and pregnant mother while post-natal exposure affected the neurodevelopment of the preterm infants and parental interaction.

CONCLUSIONS

The results testify the relevance of environmental stimuli for brain development during the pre- and perinatal periods and the beneficial effects of musical stimulation that can handle the fetal programming and the main neurobehavioral disorders.

[The mechanisms involved in rocking toddlers]

If the tactile modality is fundamental in the infant's experience, there is a particular situation in which it is mobilized: rocking. Carrying a baby in one's arms or trying to soothe him will spontaneously lead the adult to rock him, whatever his culture. The ways of carrying out this rhythmic movement are varied, but all are characterized by a synchronous combination of somesthesic and vestibular stimulations repeated at regular intervals. The specificities of the tactile, vestibular and temporal modalities involved in rocking highlight the way in which rocking provides an essential support to the sensory and social development of the infant.

Effects of Dance Interventions on Cognition, Psycho-Behavioral Symptoms, Motor Functions, and Quality of Life in Older Adult Patients With Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review

Background: Dance interventions are considered beneficial for older patients with mild cognitive impairment in many aspects. We conducted a comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis to assess the effects of dance on different aspects (cognitive function, emotions, physical function, and quality of life) of this population. Methods: A systematic search of PubMed, Web of Science, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Embase, American Psychological Association PsycInfo, ProQuest, Scopus, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature, the Chinese BioMedical Literature Database, the VIP Database for Chinese Technical Periodicals, China National Knowledge Infrastructure, and Wanfang Data database was performed. Two reviewers independently assessed the study quality. Results: Fourteen studies were retrieved from the databases for analysis. The pooled results showed that dance interventions significantly improved global cognition (standardized mean difference [SMD] = 0.73, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.47 to 0.99, P < 0.00001), rote memory (mean difference [MD] = -2.12, 95% CI: -4.02 to -0.21, P = 0.03), immediate recall (SMD = 0.54, 95% CI: 0.30 to 0.78, P < 0.0001), delayed recall (SMD = 0.56, 95% CI: 0.26 to 0.86, P = 0.0002) and attention (SMD = 0.38, 95% CI: 0.13 to 0.64, P = 0.003). No significant improvement was found in executive function, language, depression, anxiety, dementia-related behavioral symptoms, motor function, and quality of life. Conclusion: Dance interventions benefit most aspects of cognitive functions. The evidence for the effects of dance on psycho-behavioral symptoms, motor function and quality of life remains unclear. More trials with rigorous study designs are necessary to provide this evidence.

The Importance of Rhythmic Stimulation for Preterm Infants in the NICU

The fetal environment provides the fetus with multiple potential sources of rhythmic stimulation that are not present in the NICU. Maternal breathing, heartbeats, walking, dancing, running, speaking, singing, etc., all bathe the fetus in an environment of varied rhythmic stimuli: vestibular, somatosensory, tactile, and auditory. In contrast, the NICU environment does not offer the same proportion of rhythmic stimulation. After analyzing the lack of rhythmic stimulation in the NICU, this review highlights the different proposals for vestibular and/or auditory rhythmic stimulation offered to preterm infants alone and with their parents. The focus is on the beneficial effects of auditory and vestibular stimulation involving both partners of the mother-infant dyad. A preliminary study on the influence of a skin-to-skin lullaby on the stability of maternal behavior and on the tonic emotional manifestations of the preterm infant is presented as an example. The review concludes with the importance of introducing rhythmic stimulations in the NICU.

Links Between the Neurobiology of Oxytocin and Human Musicality

The human species possesses two complementary, yet distinct, universal communication systems—language and music. Functional imaging studies have revealed that some core elements of these two systems are processed in closely related brain regions, but there are also clear differences in brain circuitry that likely underlie differences in functionality. Music affects many aspects of human behavior, especially in encouraging prosocial interactions and promoting trust and cooperation within groups of culturally compatible but not necessarily genetically related individuals. Music, presumably via its impact on the limbic system, is also rewarding and motivating, and music can facilitate aspects of learning and memory. In this review these special characteristics of music are considered in light of recent research on the neuroscience of the peptide oxytocin, a hormone that has both peripheral and central actions, that plays a role in many complex human behaviors, and whose expression has recently been reported to be affected by music-related activities. I will first briefly discuss what is currently known about the peptide’s physiological actions on neurons and its interactions with other neuromodulator systems, then summarize recent advances in our knowledge of the distribution of oxytocin and its receptor (OXTR) in the human brain. Next, the complex links between oxytocin and various social behaviors in humans are considered. First, how endogenous oxytocin levels relate to individual personality traits, and then how exogenous, intranasal application of oxytocin affects behaviors such as trust, empathy, reciprocity, group conformity, anxiety, and overall social decision making under different environmental conditions. It is argued that many of these characteristics of oxytocin biology closely mirror the diverse effects that music has on human cognition and emotion, providing a link to the important role music has played throughout human evolutionary history and helping to explain why music remains a special prosocial human asset. Finally, it is suggested that there is a potential synergy in combining oxytocin- and music-based strategies to improve general health and aid in the treatment of various neurological dysfunctions.

Mother Schema, Obstetric Dilemma, and the Origin of Behavioral Modernity

What triggered the emergence of uniquely human behaviors (language, religion, music) some 100,000 years ago? A non-circular, speculative theory based on the mother-infant relationship is presented. Infant "cuteness" evokes the infant schema and motivates nurturing; the analogous mother schema (MS) is a multimodal representation of the carer from the fetal/infant perspective, motivating fearless trust. Prenatal MS organizes auditory, proprioceptive, and biochemical stimuli (voice, heartbeat, footsteps, digestion, body movements, biochemicals) that depend on maternal physical/emotional state. In human evolution, bipedalism and encephalization led to earlier births and more fragile infants. Cognitively more advanced infants survived by better communicating with and motivating (manipulating) mothers and carers. The ability to link arbitrary sound patterns to complex meanings improved (proto-language). Later in life, MS and associated emotions were triggered in ritual settings by repetitive sounds and movements (early song, chant, rhythm, dance), subdued light, dull auditory timbre, psychoactive substances, unusual tastes/smells and postures, and/or a feeling of enclosure. Operant conditioning can explain why such actions were repeated. Reflective consciousness emerged as infant-mother dyads playfully explored intentionality (theory of mind, agent detection) and carers predicted and prevented fatal infant accidents (mental time travel). The theory is consistent with cross-cultural commonalities in altered states (out-of-body, possessing, floating, fusing), spiritual beings (large, moving, powerful, emotional, wise, loving), and reports of strong musical experiences and divine encounters. Evidence is circumstantial and cumulative; falsification is problematic.

Accent Stabilizes 1:2 Sensorimotor Synchronization of Rhythmic Knee Flexion-Extension Movement in Upright Stance

Numerous studies have shown the importance of metrical structure on beat perception and sensorimotor synchronization (SMS), which indicates why metrical structure has evolved as a widespread musical element. In the current study, we aimed to investigate the effect of metrical structure with or without accented sounds and the alignment of accent with flexion or extension movements on the stability of 1:2 SMS in rhythmic knee flexion-extension movement in upright stance (flexing the knee once every two sounds). Fourteen participants completed 1:2 rhythmic knee flexion-extension movements with a metronome beat that accelerated from 2 to 8 Hz (the frequency of the movement was 1–4 Hz). Three sound-movement conditions were provided: (1) combining the flexion phase with loud (accented) sound and the extension phase with soft (non-accented) sound, (2) the reverse combination, and (3) combining both movements with loud sound. ANOVA results showed that metrical structure with accented sounds stabilizes 1:2 SMS in the range of 3.5–7.8 Hz in terms of timing accuracy, and flexing on the accented sound is more globally stable (resistant to phase transition) than flexing on the non-accented sound. Furthermore, our results showed that metrical structure with accented sounds induces larger movement amplitude in the range of 4.6–7.8 Hz than does that without accented sounds. The present study demonstrated that metrical structure with accented sounds stabilizes SMS and induces larger movement amplitude in rhythmic knee flexion-extension movement in upright stance than does SMS with sequences without accents. In addition, we demonstrated that coordinating flexion movement with accented sound is more globally stable than coordinating extension movement with accented sound. Thus, whereas previous studies have revealed that metrical structure enhances the timing accuracy of SMS, the current study revealed that metrical structure enhances the global stability of SMS.

Introduction: Art and the brain: From pleasure to well-being

Empirical aesthetics in general, and neuroaesthetics in particular, have been very much influenced by Berlyne's psychobiological program. For him, aesthetic appreciation involved the brain's reward and aversion systems. From this point of view, art constitutes a set of potentially rewarding stimuli. Research has certainly made great advances in understanding how the process of artistic valuation takes places, and which brain circuits are involved in generating the pleasure we obtain from artistic practices, performances, and works. But it also suggests that pleasure is not the only effect of the arts. The evidence rather suggests that the arts have other cognitive and emotional effects which are closely related to human psychobiological health and well-being. These are: (1) attentional focus and flow, (2) affective experience, (3) emotion through imagery, (4) interpersonal communication, (5) self-intimation, and (6) social bonding. These effects are beneficial and contribute to the individual's biopsychological health and well-being. The fact that artistic practice has these effects helps explain why the arts are so important to human life, and why they developed in the first place, i.e., as ways to foster these effects. Therefore, a biopsychological science of the arts is emerging, according to which the arts can be conceptualized as an important system of external self-regulation, as a set of activities that contribute to our homeostasis and well-being.

The Paradox of Isochrony in the Evolution of Human Rhythm

Isochrony is crucial to the rhythm of human music. Some neural, behavioral and anatomical traits underlying rhythm perception and production are shared with a broad range of species. These may either have a common evolutionary origin, or have evolved into similar traits under different evolutionary pressures. Other traits underlying rhythm are rare across species, only found in humans and few other animals. Isochrony, or stable periodicity, is common to most human music, but isochronous behaviors are also found in many species. It appears paradoxical that humans are particularly good at producing and perceiving isochronous patterns, although this ability does not conceivably confer any evolutionary advantage to modern humans. This article will attempt to solve this conundrum. To this end, we define the concept of isochrony from the present functional perspective of physiology, cognitive neuroscience, signal processing, and interactive behavior, and review available evidence on isochrony in the signals of humans and other animals. We then attempt to resolve the paradox of isochrony by expanding an evolutionary hypothesis about the function that isochronous behavior may have had in early hominids. Finally, we propose avenues for empirical research to examine this hypothesis and to understand the evolutionary origin of isochrony in general.

Not all about sex: neural and biobehavioral functions of human dance

This paper provides an integrative review of neuroscientific and biobehavioral evidence about the effects of dance on the individual across cultural differences. Dance moves us, and many derive aesthetic pleasure from it. However, in addition-and beyond aesthetics-we propose that dance has noteworthy, deeper neurobiological effects. We first summarize evidence that illustrates the centrality of dance to human life indirectly from archaeology, comparative psychology, developmental psychology, and cross-cultural psychology. Second, we review empirical evidence for six neural and biobehavioral functions of dance: (1) attentional focus/flow, (2) basic emotional experiences, (3) imagery, (4) communication, (5) self-intimation, and (6) social cohesion. We discuss the reviewed evidence in relation to current debates in the field of empirical enquiry into the functions of human dance, questioning the positions that dance is (1) just for pleasure, (2) all about sex, (3) just for mood management and well-being, and (4) for experts only. Being a young field, evidence is still piecemeal and inconclusive. This review aims to take a step toward a systematization of an emerging avenue of research: a neuro- and biobehavioral science of dance.