Head Stability and Head-Trunk Coordination in Horseback Riders: The Contribution of Visual Information According to Expertise

Balance performance among horseback-rider compared to non-horseback-rider women in Saudi Arabia: A cross-sectional study

Horseback riding requires adapting to constant changes in balance conditions, maintaining equilibrium on the horse, and preventing falls. However, differences in balance performance among horseback riders and non-rider-healthy young women in Saudi Arabia have not been explored. This study investigates whether horseback-rider women would perform better on static and dynamic balance tests than non-rider women. Also, the study examined the effect of years of horseback riding on balance performance in the rider group. Twenty healthy young females participated in the study using a convenience sampling method. Ten were riders, and ten were non-riders. Static and dynamic balance tests, including the Berg balance scale (BBS), timed up and go (TUG), and unipedal stance test (UPST), was obtained from all subjects. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to compare balance performance between the horseback riders and non-riders groups. The horseback-rider group had statistically significantly higher scores on both the static and dynamic tests than non-riders: BBS test (Z = -2.537, P = .011), TUG (t = -3.889, P = .001), and unipedal stance test with the eyes open and closed (t = 14.048, t = 13.639, P = .000). Our rider sample did not show a statistically significant correlation between years of riding and balance scores. The horseback riders have greater static and dynamic balance abilities than non-riders. Further study is needed to compare the balance performance between experienced riders versus beginners among healthy adults in Saudi Arabia.

Effects of Horseback Riding on the Postural Control of Autistic Children: A Multiple Baseline Across-subjects Design

The aim of this research was to study the effect of a horseback-riding programme on postural control in a group of autistic children (ASD). Nine children aged 9 to 12 years participated in this study through a multiple baseline across subjects design. The whole programme took place over nine months. Participants followed a previously developed specific horseback-riding programme, consisting of 45-minute sessions held twice a week for at least three months. To evaluate postural control, the average velocity of the centre of pressure displacement was measured by means of a posturographic platform. Results indicated that this intervention with horses had a positive effect on the postural control in children with ASDs.

Static pelvic posture is not related to dynamic pelvic tilt or competition level in dressage riders

Static assessment and grouping of riders by competition level are prevalent in equestrian coaching practice and research. This study explored sagittal pelvic tilt in 35 competitive dressage riders to analyse the relationship between static and dynamic postures and assess the interaction of competition level. Riders were assessed using optical motion capture on a riding simulator at halt and in walk, trot, and left and right canter. Mean, minimum and maximum pelvic tilt, and range of motion (ROM) were measured as the pitch rotation of a rigid body formed by markers placed on the rider's left/right anterior and posterior superior iliac spines and sacrum, averaged over six time-normalised strides. Three key results emerged: (1) there are correlations between the rider's mean pelvic tilt in simulated walk, trot and canter, but not at halt; (2) mean pelvic tilt values are not significantly influenced by competition level (p = 0.233); and (3) the minimum and maximum pelvic tilt values illustrate individual strategies between gaits. Therefore, results from static assessment and grouping of riders by competition level should be interpreted with caution. Riders should be assessed as individuals, during dynamic riding-specific tasks, to understand their postural strategies.

Abstract perceptual choice signals during action-linked decisions in the human brain

Humans can make abstract choices independent of motor actions. However, in laboratory tasks, choices are typically reported with an associated action. Consequentially, knowledge about the neural representation of abstract choices is sparse, and choices are often thought to evolve as motor intentions. Here, we show that in the human brain, perceptual choices are represented in an abstract, motor-independent manner, even when they are directly linked to an action. We measured MEG signals while participants made choices with known or unknown motor response mapping. Using multivariate decoding, we quantified stimulus, perceptual choice, and motor response information with distinct cortical distributions. Choice representations were invariant to whether the response mapping was known during stimulus presentation, and they occupied a distinct representational space from motor signals. As expected from an internal decision variable, they were informed by the stimuli, and their strength predicted decision confidence and accuracy. Our results demonstrate abstract neural choice signals that generalize to action-linked decisions, suggesting a general role of an abstract choice stage in human decision-making.

George L, Nankervis K, Sinclair J, Penhorwood G, Williams J, Clayton HM. Towards an Evidence-Based Classification System for Para Dressage: Associations between Impairment and Performance Measures

This study follows a previously defined framework to investigate the impact of impairment on performance in Para dressage athletes. Twenty-one elite Para dressage athletes (grades I to V) and eleven non-disabled dressage athletes (competing at Prix St. Georges or Grand Prix) participated. Data were collected in two phases: performing a two minute custom dressage test on a riding simulator while kinematic data were synchronously collected using inertial measurement units (2000 Hz) and optical motion capture (100 Hz), and clinically assessed using a battery of impairment assessment tools administered by qualified therapists. Impairment and performance measures were compared between Para and non-disabled athletes. Significant differences between athlete groups were found for all impairment measures and two performance measures: simulator trunk harmonics (p = 0.027) and athlete trunk dynamic symmetry (p < 0.001). Impairment assessments of sitting function and muscle tone could predict 19 to 35% of the impact of impairment on performance in Para athletes but not in non-disabled athletes. These findings provide the basis for a robust, scientific evidence base, which can be used to aid in the refinement of the current classification system for Para dressage, to ensure that it is in line with the International Paralympic Committee's mandate for evidence-based systems of classification.

The Triple-E Model: Advancing Equestrian Research with Perspectives from One Health

Equestrian sport has various welfare issues and educational needs. To address these complex interactions, we propose an integrated approach called the Triple-E Model, which focuses on the equine, equestrian, and environmental triad. A literature review of existing models suggests that complexities of these interactions are overlooked, despite the significant impact of equine industries on economics, healthcare, and animal welfare. This paper discusses current models and theories used to evaluate equine-equestrian-environmental interactions and introduces the Triple-E Model to foster multidisciplinary collaboration. Unlike the One Health triad, which focuses on disease emergence, transmission, and zoonosis, the Triple-E Model extends to non-infectious research, such as musculoskeletal injury. It promotes collaborative care and rehabilitation within the equestrian community by engaging multidisciplinary, multi-setting, and multi-sectoral teams. Given the nature of human-animal interaction and welfare considerations, this model fills the gap in understanding human-horse interactions. The paper highlights the limitations of existing models and explains how the Triple-E Model guides and encourages holistic team collaboration in the equestrian community.

Evaluating Overall Performance in High-Level Dressage Horse-Rider Combinations by Comparing Measurements from Inertial Sensors with General Impression Scores Awarded by Judges

In the sport of dressage, one or more judges score the combined performance of a horse and rider with an emphasis on the technical correctness of the movements performed. At the end of the test, a single score is awarded for the 'general impression', which considers the overall performance of the horse and rider as a team. This study explored original measures that contributed to the general impression score in a group of 20 horse-rider combinations. Horses and riders were equipped with inertial measurement units (200 Hz) to represent the angular motion of a horse's back and the motions of a rider's pelvis and trunk. Each combination performed a standard dressage test that was recorded to video. Sections of the video were identified for straight-line movements. The videos were analyzed by two or three judges. Four components were scored separately: gaits of the horse, rider posture, effectiveness of aids, and harmony with the horse. The main contributor to the score for gaits was stride frequency (R = -0.252, p = 0.015), with a slower frequency being preferred. Higher rider component scores were associated with more symmetrical transverse-plane trunk motion, indicating that this original measure is the most useful predictor of rider performance.

Sport dependent effects on the sensory control of balance during upright posture: a comparison between professional horseback riders, judokas and non-athletes

Introduction

Compared to judokas (JU) and non-athletes (NA), horseback riders (HR) may develop specific changes in their sensory control of balance.

Methods

Thirty-four international-level JU, twenty-seven international-level HR and twenty-one NA participated. Participants stood upright on a plateform (static condition) or on a seesaw device with an instability along the mediolateral (ML) or the anteroposterior (AP) direction (dynamic conditions). These conditions were carried out with eyes opened (EO) or closed (EC), and with (wF) or without a foam (nF). Experimental variables included conventional (linear), non-linear center-of-pressure (COP) parameters, Romberg Quotient (RQ) and Plantar Quotient (PQ).

Results

Group effects. COP Surface (COPS) and standard deviation of COP along AP (SDY) were lower in HR than in JU in Static. SD Y was lower in HR than in JU in Dynamic AP. COP velocity (COPV) was lower in both HR and JU than in NA in Static and Dynamic. Sample entropy along AP and ML (SampEnY and SampEnX) were higher in HR than in JU in Static. SampEnY was higher in HR than in JU in Dynamic ML. Sensory effects. In EC, COPV was lower in JU than in NA in Dynamic AP, and lower in JU than in both HR and NA in Dynamic ML. In EO, COPV was lower in both JU and HR than in NA in Dynamic ML. RQ applied to COPS was lower in JU than in both HR and NA in Dynamic AP, and lower in JU than in HR in Dynamic ML. RQ applied to COPV was lower in JU than in both HR and NA in Static and Dynamic. PQ applied to COPS was higher in JU than in both HR and NA in Dynamic ML.

Conclusion

Results showed that the effects of sport expertise on postural control could only be revealed with specific COP variables and were directionally oriented and sport-dependant. HR seem to rely more on vision than JU, thus revealing that the contribution of the sensory inputs to balance control is also sport-dependent. Results open up new knowledge on the specificity of sport practice on multisensory balance information during upright posture.

Reliability and Validity of a New Diagnostic Device for Quantifying Hemiparetic Arm Impairments: An Exploratory Study

OBJECTIVE

To assess test-retest reliability and validity of a new diagnostic device, the Shoulder Elbow Perturbator, to quantify muscle weakness, abnormal synergy, (muscle activity-related) spasticity, and changes in viscoelastic joint properties of the elbow.

SUBJECTS

Stroke patients, adults with cerebral palsy and healthy controls.

METHODS

Test-retest reliability was evaluated using intra-class correlations (ICC) and assessment of measurement error. The device's validity was evaluated by demonstrating differences between patients and healthy controls, and correlations of spasticity and abnormal synergy outcomes using the clinical Modified Tardieu Scale, the Fugl-Meyer Assessment, and the Test of Arm Selective Control.

RESULTS

Reliability was excellent, with an ICC > 0.75 for synergy and ICCs > 0.90 for all other impairments, with relatively small measurement errors. Validity was confirmed by group differences between patients and healthy controls for muscle weakness, spasticity, and viscoelastic joint properties, but not for abnormal synergy. Correlation analysis with clinical scales confirmed validity for spasticity, while, for synergy, correlations were found in the patients with stroke, but not those with cerebral palsy.

CONCLUSION

This new diagnostic device is a reliable and valid instrument to assess multiple upper limb impairments in patients with neurological conditions, supporting its use in clinical practice. Further studies are needed to confirm these findings.

An exploration of stakeholder perceptions to inform the development of an evidence-based classification system in para dressage

In dressage, horse-rider combinations must demonstrate harmony whilst performing a test of gaits and movements, scored by judge(s) using predetermined criteria. The para dressage governing body is working towards compliance with the International Paralympic Committee's mandate for evidence-based classification, which requires a comprehensive understanding of key performance determinants. This study aimed to explore stakeholder perceptions surrounding the key determinants of, and impact of impairment on, para dressage performance. Semi-structured interviews with 30 para dressage stakeholders (athletes, classifiers, judges, coach) were analysed using the Framework method. Themes relating to the equine and human athlete were associated with overall dressage performance and discussed within the context of impairment and horse-rider partnership. Key performance determinants were summarised as the athlete's ability to maintain dynamic postural control for absorbing the horse's movement and coordinating leg, hand, and seat aids, which directly influence the horse's quality and accuracy of movements during dressage. Thus, muscular coordination, joint mobility that influences rider posture, and personality traits that influence the horse-rider partnership were considered performance determinants. These themes will inform the development of an evidence-based classification system, through the establishment of standardised, sport-specific performance measures for assessing the relationship between impairment and activity limitation in para dressage.

Repeatability vs complexity: kinematic comparison between a dressage simulator and real horses

Riding simulators are designed to replicate movement of a horse for the purpose of assessment and training of horse riders, but little is known about their similarity in replicating movement of horses. This study tested the validity of a dressage simulator, by measuring cycle/stride duration, range and symmetry of displacement of the simulator and comparing displacement vectors to that of real horses trotting on a treadmill. A reflective marker was placed on the midline of the simulator at the estimated level of the 18th thoracic vertebrae (T18), and over the T18 spinous process of ten horses. The simulator displacement was recorded in trot mode, while the real horses trotted at a comfortable speed on a treadmill. Displacements in three axes of motion were measured using 10 high-speed video cameras sampling at 240 Hz. Correlation tests showed high levels of statistical repeatability and symmetry of the simulator between multiple runs. Mean cycle/stride duration of the simulator was significantly faster than the group of horses by 0.17 s. Significant differences between the simulator and horses were shown in overall displacement in two axes, the simulator displaying 70% greater displacement in the mediolateral axis, 22% greater displacement in the craniocaudal axis, but displaying 12% less movement in the dorsoventral axis, which was not statistically significant. Displacement trajectories showed similarities in the frontal plane, displaying a butterfly-shaped sequence, but clear differences in the sagittal plane, with the horses showing an oval pattern of displacement and the simulator a clear linear displacement. Caution must therefore be taken with assumptions that riders will move in the same way on a simulator as they would on a real horse.

Trunk and pelvis biomechanical responses in children with cerebral palsy and with typical development during horseback riding

BACKGROUND

Children with cerebral palsy (CP) have poor postural control. Horseback riding (HR) is an alternative treatment shown to improve postural control among children with CP. However, there is a paucity of research investigating the underlying mechanisms responsible for improving postural control during HR.

RESEARCH QUESTION

What are the three-dimensional biomechanical responses of the trunk and pelvis during HR among children with CP and with typical development (TD)?

METHODS

The participants, aged 4-12 years old, were inexperienced horseback riders, consisting of 10 children with TD and 10 children with spastic diplegia CP (SDCP) with GMFCS level III. Participants donned inertial measurement units (IMU) on their trunk and pelvis in order to measure angular displacement and velocity. An additional IMU was placed on the horse's lumbosacral joint. The mean absolute relative phase (MARP) and deviation phase (DP) were calculated from each plane of movement for the angular displacement and velocity across the gait cycle of the horse. Differences between groups were analyzed using independent t-tests.

RESULTS

The MARP in the frontal plane was lower in the SDCP group, when compared to the TD group (p = 0.01). Additionally, no differences were found between groups for the DP along all three axes. However, the TD group demonstrated greater pelvic movement variability in relation to the horse's pelvis movement, when compared to the SDCP group.

SIGNIFICANCE

Children with SDCP demonstrated an in-phase coupling pattern with decreased variability of pelvic movement in relation to the horse's pelvis.

Effects of a 6-week core stabilization training program on dynamic balance and trunk stabilization endurance of horse riders

The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of a 6-week core stabilization training program (CSTP) in improving dynamic balance and back-extensor endurance of horse riders; and develop a measurement tool in assessing the dynamic postural stabilization endurance for horse riders. Twelve male horse riders (age: 23.58 ± 1.93 years; height: 165.09 ± 4.60 cm; weight: 56.53 ± 4.75 kg; experience in horse racing: 1.75 ± 0.34 years) completed 12 training sessions in 6 weeks. Subjects performed the CSTP with two progressions. CSTP started with the basic consciousness activation exercises, and then eliminated visual feedback in dynamic balance task on unstable surfaces and finished with switching the center of gravity. Moderate-to-large difference was demonstrated in the Y-Balance test scores for right leg (102.81 ± 8.32 vs 106.471 ± 4.35 cm, d = 0.55, 95% CL 0.00 to 1.08) and left leg (102.04 ± 3.20 vs 106.29 ± 3.62 cm, d = 1.25, 95% CL 0.41 to 2.05) following 6 weeks CSTP. However, trivial to small differences was reported between left and right leg in pre (d = 0.12, 95% CL − 0.49 to 0.73) and post 6-week CSTP (d = 0.04, 95% CL − 0.69 to 0.78). Biering–Sørensen test (BST) shows largely greater performance after 6-week CSTP (98.3 ± 30.1 vs 131.8 ± 19.0 s, d = 1.33, 95% CL 0.54–2.09). A novel measurement, Swiss ball four-point kneeling test was shown to be correlated with the change in BST (r = 0.633).

Effects of therapeutic horse-riding program on the walking ability of students with intellectual disabilities

The purpose of this study was to determine if an 8-week therapeutic riding (TR) program was effective in improving the walking ability of students with intellectual disabilities. Thirteen students diagnosed with intellectual disabilities participated in the TR program. TR sessions were conducted twice a week (30 min per session), with a total of 16 rides taking place over an 8-week period. A gait measurement analyzer was used to measure progress based on a turn test (6-m walking and turning test), walk test (10-m walking), and timed up and go (TUG) test. Measurements were made three times: before horse-riding (P0), after 4 weeks (8 rides) of horse-riding (P1), and after 8 weeks (16 rides) of horse-riding (P2). Data analysis was conducted using SPSS software (ver. 22.0). Descriptive statistics were generated on the general characteristics of the subjects, and the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to verify the normality of the data. Because of the lack of normality, the data were analyzed using a nonparametric method and the significance level was set to 0.05. Measurements of the duration of the forward gait cycle (s) in the turn test and the forward gait speed (m/s) in the walk test indicated improved walking ability after the TR program (p < 0.001); the stride length (% height) also increased significantly (p < 0.05). The walk test revealed a significant effect of the program on the duration of the forward gait cycle (p < 0.05), while there were significant improvements on the left and right of the elaborated strides (p < 0.001). No significant improvement in TUG test performance was observed after the TR program. In this study, an 8-week TR program had positive results on gait. Therefore, further research is merited, where TR programs are likely to improve the walking ability of individuals with intellectual disabilities.

A scoping review of determinants of performance in dressage

As a first step in achieving an evidence-based classification system for the sport of Para Dressage, there is a clear need to define elite dressage performance. Previous studies have attempted to quantify performance with able-bodied riders using scientific methods; however, definitive measures have yet to be established for the horse and/or the rider. This may be, in part, due to the variety of movements and gaits that are found within a dressage test and also due to the complexity of the horse-rider partnership. The aim of this review is therefore to identify objective measurements of horse performance in dressage and the functional abilities of the rider that may influence them to achieve higher scores. Five databases (SportDiscuss, CINAHL, MEDLINE, EMBASE, VetMed) were systematically searched from 1980 to May 2018. Studies were included if they fulfilled the following criteria: (1) English language; (2) employ objective, quantitative outcome measures for describing equine and human performance in dressage; (3) describe objective measures of superior horse performance using between-subject comparisons and/or relating outcome measures to competitive scoring methods; (4) describe demands of dressage using objective physiological and/or biomechanical measures from human athletes and/or how these demands are translated into superior performance. In total, 773 articles were identified. Title and abstract screening resulted in 155 articles that met the eligibility criteria, 97 were excluded during the full screening of articles, leaving 58 included articles (14 horse, 44 rider) involving 311 equine and 584 able-bodied human participants. Mean ± sd (%) quality scores were 63.5 ± 15.3 and 72.7 ± 14.7 for the equine and human articles respectively. Significant objective measures of horse performance (n = 12 articles) were grouped into themes and separated by gait/movement. A range of temporal variables that indicated superior performance were found in all gaits/movements. For the rider, n = 5 articles reported variables that identified significant differences in skill level, which included the postural position and ROM of the rider's pelvis, trunk, knee and head. The timing of rider pelvic and trunk motion in relation to the movement of the horse emerged as an important indicator of rider influence. As temporal variables in the horse are consistently linked to superior performance it could be surmised that better overall dressage performance requires minimal disruption from the rider whilst the horse maintains a specific gait/movement. Achieving the gait/movement in the first place depends upon the intrinsic characteristics of the horse, the level of training achieved and the ability of the rider to apply the correct aid. The information from this model will be used to develop an empirical study to test the relative strength of association between impairment and performance in able-bodied and Para Dressage riders.

Effect of Mechanical Horse Practice as New Postural Training in Patients With Neurological Disorders: A Pilot Study

Objective: From a dynamic system approach, this study evaluated the impact of a new training protocol using a mechanical horse on the postural coordination of brain-damaged patients.

Methods: Eighteen volunteer brain-damaged patients (i.e., post-stroke or traumatic brain injury) were recruited and randomly divided into an experimental group (horse group; n = 10, conventional therapy associated with horse-riding exercise on the mechanical horse for 30 min, twice a week, for 12 weeks) and a control group (n = 8; conventional therapy without intervention on the mechanical horse). Postural coordination was evaluated during pre- and post-tests through discrete relative phase (DRP) computation: ϕ_Head−Horse, ϕ_{Trunk−Horse.}

Results: A significant effect of used training has been showed, F_{(1, 15)} = 16.6 (p < 0.05) for all patients, concerning the trunk/horse coordination.

Conclusion: This pilot study results showed the impact of this new training method on the postural coordination of these patients. After 24 sessions, the coordination of the horse group patients differed from that of the control group, showing their ability to adapt to constraints and develop specific modes of postural coordination (trunk/horse antiphase) to optimize their posture.

Balance control during stance - A comparison between horseback riding athletes and non-athletes

Horseback riding requires the ability to adapt to changes in balance conditions, to maintain equilibrium on the horse and to prevent falls. Postural adaptation involves specific sensorimotor processes integrating visual information and somesthesic information. The objective of this study was to examine this multisensorial integration on postural control, especially the use of visual and plantar information in static (stable) and dynamic (unstable) postures, among a group of expert horse rider women (n = 10) and a group of non-athlete women (n = 12). Postural control was evaluated through the center of pressure measured with a force platform on stable and unstable supports, with the eyes open and the eyes closed, and with the presence of foam on the support or not. Results showed that expert horse rider women had a better postural stability with unstable support in the mediolateral axis compared to non-athletes. Moreover, on the anteroposterior axis, expert horse riders were less visual dependent and more stable in the presence of foam. Results suggested that horseback riding could help developing particular proprioceptive abilities on standing posture as well as better postural muscle tone during particular bipodal dynamic perturbations. These outcomes provide new insights into horseback riding assets and methodological clues to assess the impact of sport practice.