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Dovonou A, Bolduc C, Soto Linan V, Gora C, Peralta Iii MR, Lévesque M. Animal models of Parkinson's disease: bridging the gap between disease hallmarks and research questions. Transl Neurodegener 2023; 12:36. [PMID: 37468944 PMCID: PMC10354932 DOI: 10.1186/s40035-023-00368-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by motor and non-motor symptoms. More than 200 years after its first clinical description, PD remains a serious affliction that affects a growing proportion of the population. Prevailing treatments only alleviate symptoms; there is still neither a cure that targets the neurodegenerative processes nor therapies that modify the course of the disease. Over the past decades, several animal models have been developed to study PD. Although no model precisely recapitulates the pathology, they still provide valuable information that contributes to our understanding of the disease and the limitations of our treatment options. This review comprehensively summarizes the different animal models available for Parkinson's research, with a focus on those induced by drugs, neurotoxins, pesticides, genetic alterations, α-synuclein inoculation, and viral vector injections. We highlight their characteristics and ability to reproduce PD-like phenotypes. It is essential to realize that the strengths and weaknesses of each model and the induction technique at our disposal are determined by the research question being asked. Our review, therefore, seeks to better aid researchers by ensuring a concrete discernment of classical and novel animal models in PD research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Axelle Dovonou
- CERVO Brain Research Centre, 2601, Chemin de la Canardière, Québec, QC, G1J 2G3, Canada
| | - Cyril Bolduc
- CERVO Brain Research Centre, 2601, Chemin de la Canardière, Québec, QC, G1J 2G3, Canada
| | - Victoria Soto Linan
- CERVO Brain Research Centre, 2601, Chemin de la Canardière, Québec, QC, G1J 2G3, Canada
| | - Charles Gora
- CERVO Brain Research Centre, 2601, Chemin de la Canardière, Québec, QC, G1J 2G3, Canada
| | - Modesto R Peralta Iii
- CERVO Brain Research Centre, 2601, Chemin de la Canardière, Québec, QC, G1J 2G3, Canada
| | - Martin Lévesque
- CERVO Brain Research Centre, 2601, Chemin de la Canardière, Québec, QC, G1J 2G3, Canada.
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada.
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Newly Synthesized Creatine Derivatives as Potential Neuroprotective and Antioxidant Agents on In Vitro Models of Parkinson's Disease. LIFE (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 13:life13010139. [PMID: 36676090 PMCID: PMC9864416 DOI: 10.3390/life13010139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Revised: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Oxidative stress is one of the key factors responsible for many diseases-neurodegenerative (Parkinson and Alzheimer) diseases, diabetes, atherosclerosis, etc. Creatine, a natural amino acid derivative, is capable of exerting mild, direct antioxidant activity in cultured mammalian cells acutely injured with an array of different reactive oxygen species (ROS) generating compounds. The aim of the study was in vitro (on isolated rat brain sub-cellular fractions-synaptosomes, mitochondria and microsomes) evaluation of newly synthetized creatine derivatives for possible antioxidant and neuroprotective activity. The synaptosomes and mitochondria were obtained by multiple centrifugations with Percoll, while microsomes-only by multiple centrifugations. Varying models of oxidative stress were used to study the possible antioxidant and neuroprotective effects of the respective compounds: on synaptosomes-6-hydroxydopamine; on mitochondria-tert-butyl hydroperoxide; and on microsomes-iron/ascorbate (non-enzyme-induced lipid peroxidation). Administered alone, creatine derivatives and creatine (at concentration 38 µM) revealed neurotoxic and pro-oxidant effects on isolated rat brain subcellular fractions (synaptosomes, mitochondria and microsomes). In models of 6-hydroxydopamine (on synaptosomes), tert-butyl hydroperoxide (on mitochondria) and iron/ascorbate (on microsomes)-induced oxidative stress, the derivatives showed neuroprotective and antioxidant effects. These effects may be due to the preservation of the reduced glutathione level, ROS scavenging and membranes' stabilizers against free radicals. Thus, they play a role in the antioxidative defense system and have a promising potential as therapeutic neuroprotective agents for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders, connected with oxidative stress, such as Parkinson's disease.
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3
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Cavalheiro EKFF, da Silva LE, Oliveira MP, Silva MG, Damiani AP, Ribeiro CB, Magenis ML, Cucker L, Michels M, Joaquim L, Machado RS, Vilela TC, Bitencourt RM, Andrade VM, Dal-Pizzol F, Petronilho F, Tuon T, Rezin GT. Effects of obesity on neuroinflammatory and neurochemical parameters in an animal model of reserpine-induced Parkinson's disease. Behav Brain Res 2022; 434:114019. [PMID: 35872330 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2022.114019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2022] [Revised: 06/30/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/06/2022]
Abstract
Obesity is associated with low-grade chronic inflammation and oxidative stress, affecting the brain's reward system by decreasing dopaminergic neurotransmission. It is known that dopaminergic neurotransmission is also reduced in Parkinson's disease (PD), and high adiposity is considered a risk factor for the development of several neurodegenerative diseases, including PD. This study aimed to assess the effects of obesity on neuroinflammatory and neurochemical parameters in an animal model of reserpine-induced PD. The obese group showed increased inflammation and oxidative damage as well as inhibition of mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes I and II and DNA damage in the evaluated structures. The PD group did not show inflammation or mitochondrial dysfunction but exhibited oxidative damage in the hippocampus. The combination group (obesity + PD) showed reduced inflammation and oxidative stress and increased activity of complexes I and II of the mitochondrial respiratory chain in most of the analyzed structures. On the other hand, obesity + PD caused oxidative damage to proteins in the liver, prefrontal cortex, striatum, and cerebral cortex and oxidative stress in the hypothalamus, resulting in reduced catalase activity. Furthermore, the combination group showed DNA damage in blood, liver, and cerebral cortex. In conclusion, it was observed that the association of obesity and PD did not increase inflammation, oxidative stress, or mitochondrial dysfunction in most of the evaluated structures but increased oxidative damage and induced mechanisms that led to DNA damage in peripheral tissues and brain structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eulla Keimili Fernandes Ferreira Cavalheiro
- Laboratory of Neurobiology of Inflammatory and Metabolic Processes, Postgraduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Southern Santa Catarina, Tubarão, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Larissa Espindola da Silva
- Laboratory of Neurobiology of Inflammatory and Metabolic Processes, Postgraduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Southern Santa Catarina, Tubarão, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Mariana P Oliveira
- Laboratory of Neurobiology of Inflammatory and Metabolic Processes, Postgraduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Southern Santa Catarina, Tubarão, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Marina G Silva
- Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Postgraduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Southern Santa Catarina, Tubarão, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Adriani P Damiani
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular e Molecular, Universidade do Extremo Sul Catarinense, UNESC, Avenida Universitária, 1105, Criciúma, SC, Brazil
| | - Catharina B Ribeiro
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular e Molecular, Universidade do Extremo Sul Catarinense, UNESC, Avenida Universitária, 1105, Criciúma, SC, Brazil
| | - Marina L Magenis
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular e Molecular, Universidade do Extremo Sul Catarinense, UNESC, Avenida Universitária, 1105, Criciúma, SC, Brazil
| | - Luana Cucker
- Laboratory of Experimental Pathophysiology, Graduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Southern Santa Catarina, Criciúma, SC, Brazil
| | - Monique Michels
- Laboratory of Experimental Pathophysiology, Graduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Southern Santa Catarina, Criciúma, SC, Brazil
| | - Larissa Joaquim
- Laboratory of Neurobiology of Inflammatory and Metabolic Processes, Postgraduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Southern Santa Catarina, Tubarão, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Richard Simon Machado
- Laboratory of Neurobiology of Inflammatory and Metabolic Processes, Postgraduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Southern Santa Catarina, Tubarão, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Thais C Vilela
- Laboratory of Neurobiology of Inflammatory and Metabolic Processes, Postgraduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Southern Santa Catarina, Tubarão, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Rafael M Bitencourt
- Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Postgraduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Southern Santa Catarina, Tubarão, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Vanessa M Andrade
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular e Molecular, Universidade do Extremo Sul Catarinense, UNESC, Avenida Universitária, 1105, Criciúma, SC, Brazil
| | - Felipe Dal-Pizzol
- Laboratory of Experimental Pathophysiology, Graduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Southern Santa Catarina, Criciúma, SC, Brazil
| | - Fabrícia Petronilho
- Laboratory of Neurobiology of Inflammatory and Metabolic Processes, Postgraduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Southern Santa Catarina, Tubarão, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Talita Tuon
- Laboratory of Neurobiology of Inflammatory and Metabolic Processes, Postgraduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Southern Santa Catarina, Tubarão, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Gislaine Tezza Rezin
- Laboratory of Neurobiology of Inflammatory and Metabolic Processes, Postgraduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Southern Santa Catarina, Tubarão, Santa Catarina, Brazil.
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Sałat K, Furgała-Wojas A. Serotonergic Neurotransmission System Modulator, Vortioxetine, and Dopaminergic D 2/D 3 Receptor Agonist, Ropinirole, Attenuate Fibromyalgia-Like Symptoms in Mice. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26082398. [PMID: 33924258 PMCID: PMC8074757 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26082398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2021] [Revised: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Fibromyalgia is a disease characterized by lowered pain threshold, mood disorders, and decreased muscular strength. It results from a complex dysfunction of the nervous system and due to unknown etiology, its diagnosis, treatment, and prevention are a serious challenge for contemporary medicine. Impaired serotonergic and dopaminergic neurotransmission are regarded as key factors contributing to fibromyalgia. The present research assessed the effect of serotonergic and dopaminergic system modulators (vortioxetine and ropinirole, respectively) on the pain threshold, depressive-like behavior, anxiety, and motor functions of mice with fibromyalgia-like symptoms induced by subcutaneous reserpine (0.25 mg/kg). By depleting serotonin and dopamine in the mouse brain, reserpine induced symptoms of human fibromyalgia. Intraperitoneal administration of vortioxetine and ropinirole at the dose of 10 mg/kg alleviated tactile allodynia. At 5 and 10 mg/kg ropinirole showed antidepressant-like properties, while vortioxetine had anxiolytic-like properties. None of these drugs influenced muscle strength but reserpine reduced locomotor activity of mice. Concluding, in the mouse model of fibromyalgia vortioxetine and ropinirole markedly reduced pain. These drugs affected emotional processes of mice in a distinct manner. Hence, these two repurposed drugs should be considered as potential drug candidates for fibromyalgia. The selection of a specific drug should depend on patient’s key symptoms.
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Draoui A, El Hiba O, Aimrane A, El Khiat A, Gamrani H. Parkinson's disease: From bench to bedside. Rev Neurol (Paris) 2020; 176:543-559. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neurol.2019.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2019] [Revised: 11/04/2019] [Accepted: 11/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Crans RAJ, Wouters E, Valle-León M, Taura J, Massari CM, Fernández-Dueñas V, Stove CP, Ciruela F. Striatal Dopamine D 2-Muscarinic Acetylcholine M 1 Receptor-Receptor Interaction in a Model of Movement Disorders. Front Pharmacol 2020; 11:194. [PMID: 32231561 PMCID: PMC7083216 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.00194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by motor control deficits, which is associated with the loss of striatal dopaminergic neurons from the substantia nigra. In parallel to dopaminergic denervation, there is an increase of acetylcholine within the striatum, resulting in a striatal dopaminergic–cholinergic neurotransmission imbalance. Currently, available PD pharmacotherapy (e.g., prodopaminergic drugs) does not reinstate the altered dopaminergic–cholinergic balance. In addition, it can eventually elicit cholinergic-related adverse effects. Here, we investigated the interplay between dopaminergic and cholinergic systems by assessing the physical and functional interaction of dopamine D2 and muscarinic acetylcholine M1 receptors (D2R and M1R, respectively), both expressed at striatopallidal medium spiny neurons. First, we provided evidence for the existence of D2R–M1R complexes via biochemical (i.e., co-immunoprecipitation) and biophysical (i.e., BRET1 and NanoBiT®) assays, performed in transiently transfected HEK293T cells. Subsequently, a D2R–M1R co-distribution in the mouse striatum was observed through double-immunofluorescence staining and AlphaLISA® immunoassay. Finally, we evaluated the functional interplay between both receptors via behavioral studies, by implementing the classical acute reserpine pharmacological animal model of experimental parkinsonism. Reserpinized mice were administered with a D2R-selective agonist (sumanirole) and/or an M1R-selective antagonist (VU0255035), and alterations in PD-related behavioral tasks (i.e., locomotor activity) were evaluated. Importantly, VU0255035 (10 mg/kg) potentiated the antiparkinsonian-like effects (i.e., increased locomotor activity and decreased catalepsy) of an ineffective sumanirole dose (3 mg/kg). Altogether, our data suggest the existence of putative striatal D2R/M1R heteromers, which might be a relevant target to manage PD motor impairments with fewer adverse effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- René A J Crans
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.,Unitat de Farmacologia, Departament Patologia i Terapèutica Experimental, Facultat de Medicina, IDIBELL-Universitat de Barcelona, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Elise Wouters
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Marta Valle-León
- Unitat de Farmacologia, Departament Patologia i Terapèutica Experimental, Facultat de Medicina, IDIBELL-Universitat de Barcelona, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jaume Taura
- Unitat de Farmacologia, Departament Patologia i Terapèutica Experimental, Facultat de Medicina, IDIBELL-Universitat de Barcelona, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Caio M Massari
- Unitat de Farmacologia, Departament Patologia i Terapèutica Experimental, Facultat de Medicina, IDIBELL-Universitat de Barcelona, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain.,Programa de Poìs-graduação em Bioquiìmica, Centro de Ciencias Bioloìgicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianoìpolis, Brazil
| | - Víctor Fernández-Dueñas
- Unitat de Farmacologia, Departament Patologia i Terapèutica Experimental, Facultat de Medicina, IDIBELL-Universitat de Barcelona, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Christophe P Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Francisco Ciruela
- Unitat de Farmacologia, Departament Patologia i Terapèutica Experimental, Facultat de Medicina, IDIBELL-Universitat de Barcelona, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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Differential impairment of short working and spatial memories in a rat model of progressive Parkinson’s disease onset: A focus on the prodromal stage. Brain Res Bull 2019; 150:307-316. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2019.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Revised: 06/13/2019] [Accepted: 06/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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8
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Sex differences in the progressive model of parkinsonism induced by reserpine in rats. Behav Brain Res 2019; 363:23-29. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2019.01.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2018] [Revised: 01/05/2019] [Accepted: 01/24/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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9
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Cognitive and anxiety-like impairments accompanied by serotonergic ultrastructural and immunohistochemical alterations in early stages of parkinsonism. Brain Res Bull 2019; 146:213-223. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2019.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2018] [Revised: 01/04/2019] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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10
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Serotonergic dysfunction in a model of parkinsonism induced by reserpine. J Chem Neuroanat 2019; 96:73-78. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2018.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2018] [Revised: 11/27/2018] [Accepted: 12/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Erekat N, Al-Jarrah MD. Interleukin-1 Beta and Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha Upregulation and Nuclear Factor Kappa B Activation in Skeletal Muscle from a Mouse Model of Chronic/Progressive Parkinson Disease. Med Sci Monit 2018; 24:7524-7531. [PMID: 30344306 PMCID: PMC6402272 DOI: 10.12659/msm.909032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Skeletal muscle atrophy has been reported in patients with Parkinson disease (PD). The purpose of this study was to examine the potential implication of interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), and nuclear factor kappa B (NF kappa B) in skeletal muscle atrophy following PD induction. MATERIAL AND METHODS Chronic Parkinsonism was induced in 10 albino mice by MPTP/probenecid treatment, while 10 other albino mice remained without treatment and were subsequently used as controls. Gastrocnemius muscles were examined for the expression of IL-1β and TNF-α, as well as the nuclear localization of NF kappa B, indicative of its activation, using immunohistochemistry in the 2 different groups. RESULTS IL-1β and TNF-α expression and NF kappa B nuclear localization were significantly higher in the PD skeletal muscle compared with those in the controls (P value <0.01). CONCLUSIONS The present data are indicative of an association of PD with IL-1β and TNF-α upregulation and NF kappa B activation in gastrocnemius muscles, potentially promoting the atrophy frequently observed in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nour Erekat
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan
| | - Muhammed D Al-Jarrah
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan
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12
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Wu HC, Hu QL, Zhang SJ, Wang YM, Jin ZK, Lv LF, Zhang S, Liu ZL, Wu HL, Cheng OM. Neuroprotective effects of genistein on SH-SY5Y cells overexpressing A53T mutant α-synuclein. Neural Regen Res 2018; 13:1375-1383. [PMID: 30106049 PMCID: PMC6108222 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.235250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Genistein, a potent antioxidant compound, protects dopaminergic neurons in a mouse model of Parkinson's disease. However, the mechanism underlying this action remains unknown. This study investigated human SH-SY5Y cells overexpressing the A53T mutant of α-synuclein. Four groups of cells were assayed: a control group (without any treatment), a genistein group (incubated with 20 μM genistein), a rotenone group (treated with 50 μM rotenone), and a rotenone + genistein group (incubated with 20 μM genistein and then treated with 50 μM rotenone). A lactate dehydrogenase release test confirmed the protective effect of genistein, and genistein remarkably reversed mitochondrial oxidative injury caused by rotenone. Western blot assays showed that BCL-2 and Beclin 1 levels were markedly higher in the genistein group than in the rotenone group. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling revealed that genistein inhibited rotenone-induced apoptosis in SH-SY5Y cells. Compared with the control group, the expression of NFE2L2 and HMOX1 was significantly increased in the genistein + rotenone group. However, after treatment with estrogen receptor and NFE2L2 channel blockers (ICI-182780 and ML385, respectively), genistein could not elevate NFE2L2 and HMOX1 expression. ICI-182780 effectively prevented genistein-mediated phosphorylation of NFE2L2 and remarkably suppressed phosphorylation of AKT, a protein downstream of the estrogen receptor. These findings confirm that genistein has neuroprotective effects in a cell model of Parkinson's disease. Genistein can reduce oxidative stress damage and cell apoptosis by activating estrogen receptors and NFE2L2 channels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huan-Cheng Wu
- Graduate School, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
- Tianjin Beichen Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | | | | | | | | | - Ling-Fu Lv
- Tianjin Beichen Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Sai Zhang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Neurotrauma Repair, Institute of Traumatic Brain Injury and Neuroscience, Center for Neurology and Neurosurgery of Affiliated Hospital, Logistics University of Chinese People's Armed Police Force, Tianjin, China
| | - Zhen-Lin Liu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Neurotrauma Repair, Institute of Traumatic Brain Injury and Neuroscience, Center for Neurology and Neurosurgery of Affiliated Hospital, Logistics University of Chinese People's Armed Police Force, Tianjin, China
| | - Hong-Lian Wu
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Ou-Mei Cheng
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
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Blaylock RL. Parkinson's disease: Microglial/macrophage-induced immunoexcitotoxicity as a central mechanism of neurodegeneration. Surg Neurol Int 2017; 8:65. [PMID: 28540131 PMCID: PMC5421223 DOI: 10.4103/sni.sni_441_16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2016] [Accepted: 02/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease is one of the several neurodegenerative disorders that affects aging individuals, with approximately 1% of those over the age of 60 years developing the disorder in their lifetime. The disease has the characteristics of a progressive disorder in most people, with a common pattern of pathological change occurring in the nervous system that extends beyond the classical striatal degeneration of dopaminergic neurons. Earlier studies concluded that the disease was a disorder of alpha-synuclein, with the formation of aggregates of abnormal alpha-synuclein being characteristic. More recent studies have concluded that inflammation plays a central role in the disorder and that the characteristic findings can be accounted for by either mutation or oxidative damage to alpha-synuclein, with resulting immune reactions from surrounding microglia, astrocytes, and macrophages. What has been all but ignored in most of these studies is the role played by excitotoxicity and that the two processes are intimately linked, with inflammation triggered cell signaling enhancing the excitotoxic cascade. Further, there is growing evidence that it is the excitotoxic reactions that actually cause the neurodegeneration. I have coined the name immunoexcitotoxicity to describe this link between inflammation and excitotoxicity. It appears that the two processes are rarely, if ever, separated in neurodegenerative diseases.
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