Modulation of early and late event-related potentials by emotion

Uncovering the underlying factors of ERP changes in the cyberball paradigm: A systematic review investigating the impact of ostracism and paradigm characteristics

The Cyberball is the most commonly employed paradigm for the investigation of the effects of social exclusion, also called ostracism. The analysis of event-related potentials (ERPs), short-term stimulus-induced fluctuations in the EEG signal, has been employed for the identification of time-sensitive neural responses to ostracism-related information. Changes in ERPs during the Cyberball are normally attributed to the effect of ostracism, but it has been argued that characteristics of the paradigm, not ostracism, are the driving force for these changes. To elucidate the origin of the ERP changes in the Cyberball, we systematically reviewed the Cyberball-ERP literature of healthy, adult populations, and evaluated whether the social context of ostracism or characteristics of the paradigm are better suited for the explanation of the found results. Our results show that for many components no clear origin can be identified, but that expectancy violations, not ostracism, best explains the results of the P3 complex. Future research should therefore also employ other paradigms for the research into the effects of ostracism on ERPs.

Unveiling the Role of Contingent Negative Variation (CNV) in Migraine: A Review of Electrophysiological Studies in Adults and Children

Migraine has been considered a chronic neuronal-based pain disorder characterized by the presence of cortical hyperexcitability. The Contingent Negative Variation (CNV) is the most explored electrophysiological index in migraine. However, the findings show inconsistencies regarding its functional significance. To address this, we conducted a review in both adults and children with migraine without aura to gain a deeper understanding of it and to derive clinical implications. The literature search was conducted in the PubMed, SCOPUS and PsycINFO databases until September 2022m and 34 articles were retrieved and considered relevant for further analysis. The main results in adults showed higher CNV amplitudes (with no habituation) in migraine patients. Electrophysiological abnormalities, particularly focused on the early CNV subcomponent (eCNV), were especially prominent a few days before the onset of a migraine attack, normalizing during and after the attack. We also explored various modulatory factors, including pharmacological treatments-CNV amplitude was lower after the intake of drugs targeting neural hyperexcitability-and other factors such as psychological, hormonal or genetic/familial influences on CNV. Although similar patterns were found in children, the evidence is particularly scarce and less consistent, likely due to the brain's maturation process during childhood. As the first review exploring the relationship between CNV and migraine, this study supports the role of the CNV as a potential neural marker for migraine pathophysiology and the prediction of pain attacks. The importance of further exploring the relationship between this neurophysiological index and childhood migraine is critical for identifying potential therapeutic targets for managing migraine symptoms during its development.

Decreased preparatory activation and inattention to cues suggest lower activation of proactive cognitive control among high procrastinating students

Procrastination is a voluntary delay in completing an important task while being aware that this behavior may lead to negative outcomes. It has been shown that an increased tendency to procrastinate is associated with deficits in some aspects of cognitive control. However, none of the previous studies investigated these dysfunctions through the lenses of the Dual Mechanisms Framework, which differentiates proactive and reactive modes of control. The present study was designed to fill this gap, using behavioral and neurophysiological assessment during the completion of the AX-Continuous Performance Task (AX-CPT) by high (HP) and low (LP) procrastinating students (N = 139). Behavioral results indicated that HP (vs. LP) were characterized by increased attentional fluctuations (higher reaction time variability) and reduction in some indices of proactive cognitive control (lower d'-context and A-cue bias, but similar PBIs). Furthermore, the neurophysiological data showed that HP, compared with LP, allocated less attentional resources (lower P3b) to cues that help to predict the correct responses to upcoming probes. They also responded with reduced preparatory activity (smaller CNV) after cues presentation. The two groups did not differ in neural responses linked to conflict detection and inhibition (similar N2 and P3a). Obtained findings indicate that HP might present deficits in some cognitive functions that are essential for effective proactive control engagement, along with preserved levels of reactive cognitive control. In the present paper, we discuss the potential neural and cognitive mechanisms responsible for the observed effects.

Pain expectation and avoidance in the social context: an electrophysiological study

Contingent negative variation (CNV) is an informative electrophysiological measure of pain anticipation showing higher amplitudes when highly painful stimulation is expected while presenting lower amplitudes when low painful stimulation is expected. Two groups of participants were recruited: one group expected and received an electrical stimulation of different intensities while being alone in the room (i.e. without social context), while a second group performed the same experiment with an observer in the room (i.e. with social context). Lower pain ratings and slower reaction times were observed in the group with social context and these results were accompanied in this group by a lower amplitude in the early component of the CNV as well as a lower amplitude of the later component of the wave. These results show that CNV can be considered a precise measure of central elaboration of pain anticipation explaining both its perceptual and motor components.

Salient distractors open the door of perception: alpha desynchronization marks sensory gating in a working memory task

Focusing attention on relevant information while ignoring distracting stimuli is essential to the efficacy of working memory. Alpha- and theta-band oscillations have been linked to the inhibition of anticipated and attentionally avoidable distractors. However, the neurophysiological background of the rejection of task-irrelevant stimuli appearing in the focus of attention is not fully understood. We aimed to examine whether theta and alpha-band oscillations serve as an indicator of successful distractor rejection. Twenty-four students were enrolled in the study. 64-channel EEG was recorded during a modified Sternberg working memory task where weak and strong (salient) distractors were presented during the retention period. Event-related spectral perturbation in the alpha frequency band was significantly modulated by the saliency of the distracting stimuli, while theta oscillation was modulated by the need for cognitive control. Moreover, stronger alpha desynchronization to strong relative to weak distracting stimuli significantly increased the probability of mistakenly identifying the presented distractor as a member of the memory sequence. Therefore, our results suggest that alpha activity reflects the vulnerability of attention to distracting salient stimuli.

The Effect of a Pseudo Winning or Losing Streak on Mental Attitudes and the Evaluation of Results

Although human motivation has been well studied, studies manipulating human motivation are scarce. The present study aimed to induce the hot-hand phenomenon using a pseudo success situation. Under the framework of the two-factor theory of emotion, we investigated the effect of a deviant situation, such as continuously winning or losing, on mental attitudes and the evaluation of the results using the contingent-negative variation (CNV) and feedback-locked P3 (FB-P3). The CNV is a neural activity that reflects emotional expectations and motoric preparation. The FB-P3 is a neural activity that is induced by external feedback. Fifteen participants performed an S1-S2 reaction time task with an opponent in the following three competitive conditions: actual feedback (feedback is contingent on performance), winning streak (WS; tendency to win regardless of performance), and losing streak (LS; tendency to lose regardless of performance). Each condition was characterized by the winning rate (49.26%, 80%, and 20%). Moreover, a principal component analysis was performed on the CNV data to determine the distinct temporal neural activity. The principal component analysis identified three components (auditory P2, early CNV, and late CNV) in the original CNV. The auditory P2 and the occurrence of pleasant emotions were higher in the WS condition than in the LS condition. However, the early CNV, late CNV, and FB-P3 were higher in the LS condition than in the WS condition. These findings confirmed that the losing streak situation induced an unpleasant emotion. However, the losing streak situation appeared to improve the mental attitude to prepare for faster responses and enhance the interest in the results.

When Emotions Matter: Focusing on Emotion Improves Working Memory Updating in Older Adults

Research indicates that emotion can affect the ability to monitor and replace content in working memory, an executive function that is usually referred to as updating. However, it is less clear if the effects of emotion on updating vary with its relevance for the task and with age. Here, 25 younger (20–34 years of age) and 25 older adults (63–80 years of age) performed a 1-back and a 2-back task, in which they responded to younger, middle-aged, and older faces showing neutral, happy or angry expressions. The relevance of emotion for the task was manipulated through instructions to make match/non-match judgments based on the emotion (i.e., emotion was task-relevant) or the age (i.e., emotion was task-irrelevant) of the face. It was found that only older adults updated emotional faces more readily compared to neutral faces as evidenced by faster RTs on non-match trials. This emotion benefit was observed under low-load conditions (1-back task) but not under high-load conditions (2-back task) and only if emotion was task-relevant. In contrast, task-irrelevant emotion did not impair updating performance in either age group. These findings suggest that older adults can benefit from task-relevant emotional information to a greater extent than younger adults when sufficient cognitive resources are available. They also highlight that emotional processing can buffer age-related decline in WM tasks that require not only maintenance but also manipulation of material.

An Emotional Call to Action: Integrating Affective Neuroscience in Models of Motor Control

Intimate relationships between emotion and action have long been acknowledged, yet contemporary theories and experimental research within affective and movement neuroscience have not been linked into a coherent framework bridging these two fields. Accumulating psychological and neuroimaging evidence has, however, brought new insights regarding how emotions affect the preparation, execution, and control of voluntary movement. Here we review main approaches and findings on such emotion–action interactions. To assimilate key emotion concepts of action tendencies and motive states with fundamental constructs of the motor system, we underscore the need for integrating an information-processing approach of motor control into affective neuroscience. This should provide a rich foundation to bridge the two fields, allowing further refinement and empirical testing of emotion theories and better understanding of affective influences in movement disorders.

Measuring expectation of pain: Contingent negative variation in placebo and nocebo effects

BACKGROUND

Expectation is an important mechanism underlying placebo response. Here, we analysed expectation of placebo hypoalgesia and nocebo hyperalgesia by using, for the first time, the contingent negative variation (CNV), also known as expectancy wave.

METHODS

Subjects were presented a green or red cue followed by a train of either non painful or painful electrical stimuli, and expected hypoalgesia after the green and hyperalgesia after the red cue. In experiment 1, expectation was reinforced using a conditioning procedure whereby the green and red cues were paired with non painful and painful stimuli, respectively (acquisition). In a second session (test) the intensity of the stimuli was kept constant, regardless of cue. In experiment 2 no conditioning was performed and participants expected an altered pain perception indicated by the visual cues. CNV mean amplitude, time necessary to stop the train of stimuli (reaction time) and pain ratings were measured.

RESULTS

A difference in pain perception occurred when electrical stimuli followed the presentation of the green cue compared to the red in the test session, whereas reaction times showed no changes. The same difference occurred in the early CNV component, related to cognitive stimulus anticipation, whereas the late CNV component, related to motor preparation, did not change. Moreover, these differences in pain perception and CNV amplitude were less robust in the experiment 2.

CONCLUSION

Placebo hypoalgesia and nocebo hyperalgesia differently affect sensory (pain perception) and motor components (pain avoidance) of pain. Furthermore, CNV is an electrophysiological objective measure capable of dissecting these components.

SIGNIFICANCE

Dissection of placebo hypoalgesia, differentiating the sensory component (pain perception) from the motor component (pain avoidance). Study of these components using the contingent negative variation (CNV) as an electrophysiological objective measure.

Attention to emotional stimuli in borderline personality disorder - a review of the influence of dissociation, self-reference, and psychotherapeutic interventions

Interactions between attention and processing of emotional stimuli shed light on both sensitivity to emotional stimuli as well as emotion dysregulation. Both of the latter processes have been proposed as central characteristics of altered emotion processing in those with borderline personality disorder (BPD). This review first summarizes the conflicting behavioural, psychophysiological and neuroimaging evidence for the hypothesis that emotional dysregulation should be reflected by higher distractibility through emotional stimuli in those with BPD. Dissociation, self-reference, as well as symptom severity modulated by psychotherapeutic interventions are proposed to help clarify divergent findings. Data suggest an association of dissociation with impaired task continuation during the presentation of interfering emotional and neutral stimuli, as well as high recruitment of neuronal attention networks together with a blunted emotional response. Considering self-reference, evidence suggests that negative rather than positive information may be more self-relevant to those with BPD. This may be due to a negative self-concept and self-evaluation. Social or trauma-relevant information attracts more attention from individuals with BPD and thus suggests higher self-relevance. After psychotherapeutic interventions, initial evidence may indicate normalization of the way attention and emotional stimuli interact in BPD. When studying attention-emotion interactions in BPD, methodological heterogeneities regarding sample, task, and stimulus characteristics need to be considered. When doing so, dissociation, self-reference, and psychotherapeutic interventions offer promising targets for future studies on attention-emotion interactions in those with BPD. This could promote a deeper insight into the affected individuals' struggle with emotions.

Threat modulates neural responses to looming visual stimuli

Objects on a collision course with an observer produce a specific pattern of optical expansion on the retina known as looming, which in theory exactly specifies the time-to-collision (TTC) of approaching objects. It was recently demonstrated that the affective content of looming stimuli influences perceived TTC, with threatening objects judged as approaching sooner than non-threatening objects. Here, the neural mechanisms by which perceived threat modulates spatiotemporal perception were investigated. Participants judged the TTC of threatening (snakes, spiders) or non-threatening (butterflies, rabbits) stimuli, which expanded in size at a rate indicating one of five TTCs. Visual-evoked potentials (VEPs) and oscillatory neural responses measured with electroencephalography were analysed. The arrival time of threatening stimuli was underestimated compared with non-threatening stimuli, though an interaction suggested that this underestimation was not constant across TTCs. Further, both speed of approach and threat modulated both VEPs and oscillatory responses. Speed of approach modulated the N1 parietal and oscillations in the beta band. Threat modulated several VEP components (P1, N1 frontal, N1 occipital, early posterior negativity and late positive potential) and oscillations in the alpha and high gamma band. The results for the high gamma band suggest an interaction between these two factors. Previous evidence suggests that looming stimuli activate sensorimotor areas, even in the absence of an intended action. The current results show that threat disrupts the synchronization over the sensorimotor areas that are likely activated by the presentation of a looming stimulus.

Emotional intensity influences pre-implementation and implementation of distraction and reappraisal

Although emotional intensity powerfully challenges regulatory strategies, its influence remains largely unexplored in affective-neuroscience. Accordingly, the present study addressed the moderating role of emotional intensity in two regulatory stages--implementation (during regulation) and pre-implementation (prior to regulation), of two major cognitive regulatory strategies--distraction and reappraisal. According to our framework, because distraction implementation involves early attentional disengagement from emotional information before it gathers force, in high-intensity it should be more effective in the short-term, relative to reappraisal, which modulates emotional processing only at a late semantic meaning phase. Supporting findings showed that in high (but not low) intensity, distraction implementation resulted in stronger modulation of negative experience, reduced neural emotional processing (centro-parietal late positive potential, LPP), with suggestive evidence for less cognitive effort (frontal-LPP), relative to reappraisal. Related pre-implementation findings confirmed that anticipating regulation of high-intensity stimuli resulted in distraction (over reappraisal) preference. In contrast, anticipating regulation of low-intensity stimuli resulted in reappraisal (over distraction) preference, which is most beneficial for long-term adaptation. Furthermore, anticipating cognitively demanding regulation, either in cases of regulating counter to these preferences or via the more effortful strategy of reappraisal, enhanced neural attentional resource allocation (Stimulus Preceding Negativity). Broad implications are discussed.

Getting ready for an emotion: specific premotor brain activities for self-administered emotional pictures

Emotional perception has been extensively studied, but only a few studies have investigated the brain activity preceding exposure to emotional stimuli, especially when they are triggered by the subject himself. Here, we sought to investigate the emotional expectancy by means of movement related cortical potentials (MRCPs) in a self-paced task, in which the subjects begin the affective experience by pressing a key. In this experiment, participants had to alternatively press two keys to concomitantly display positive, negative, neutral, and scrambled images extracted from the International Affective Pictures System (IAPS). Each key press corresponded to a specific emotional category, and the experimenter communicated the coupling before each trial so that the subjects always knew the valence of the forthcoming picture. The main results of the present study included a bilateral positive activity in prefrontal areas during expectancy of more arousing pictures (positive and negative) and an early and sustained positivity over occipital areas, especially during negative expectancy. In addition, we observed more pronounced and anteriorly distributed Late Positive Potential (LPPs) components in the emotional conditions. In conclusion, these results show that emotional expectancy can influence brain activity in both motor preparation and stimulus perception, suggesting enhanced pre-processing in the to-be-stimulated areas. We propose that before a predictable emotional stimulus, both appetitive and defensive motivational systems act to facilitate the forthcoming processing of survival-relevant contents by means of an enhancement of attention toward more arousing pictures.