Proestrus Differentially Regulates Expression of Ion Channel and Calcium Homeostasis Genes in GnRH Neurons of Mice

Sex difference in TRPM3 channel functioning in nociceptive and vascular systems: an emerging target for migraine therapy in females?

Transient Receptor Potential Melastatin 3 (TRPM3) channels are Ca2+ permeable ion channels that act as polymodal sensors of mechanical, thermal, and various chemical stimuli. TRPM3 channels are highly expressed in the trigeminovascular system, including trigeminal neurons and the vasculature. Their presence in dural afferents suggests that they are potential triggers of migraine pain, which is originating from the meningeal area. This area is densely innervated by autonomous and trigeminal nerves that contain the major migraine mediator calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) in peptidergic nerve fibers. Co-expression of TRPM3 channels and CGRP receptors in meningeal nerves suggests a potential interplay between both signalling systems. Compared to other members of the TRP family, TRPM3 channels have a high sensitivity to sex hormones and to the endogenous neurosteroid pregnenolone sulfate (PregS). The predominantly female sex hormones estrogen and progesterone, of which the levels drop during menses, act as natural inhibitors of TRPM3 channels, while PregS is a known endogenous agonist of these channels. A decrease in sex hormone levels has also been suggested as trigger for attacks of menstrually-related migraine. Notably, there is a remarkable sex difference in TRPM3-mediated effects in trigeminal nociceptive signalling and the vasculature. In line with this, the relaxation of human isolated meningeal arteries induced by the activation of TRPM3 channels is greater in females. Additionally, the sex-dependent vasodilatory responses to CGRP in meningeal arteries seem to be influenced by age-related hormonal changes, which could contribute to sex differences in migraine pathology. Consistent with these observations, activation of TRPM3 channels triggers nociceptive sensory firing much more prominently in female than male mouse meninges, suggesting that pain processing in female patients with migraine may differ. Overall, the combined TRPM3-related neuronal and vascular mechanisms could provide a possible explanation for the higher prevalence and even the more severe quality of migraine attacks in females. This narrative review summarizes recent data on the sex-dependent roles of TRPM3 channels in migraine pathophysiology, the potential interplay between TRPM3 and CGRP signalling, and highlights the prospects for translational therapies targeting TRPM3 channels, which may be of particular relevance for women with migraine.

In vivo spontaneous activity and coital-evoked inhibition of mouse accessory olfactory bulb output neurons

Little is known about estrous effects on brain microcircuits. We examined the accessory olfactory bulb (AOB) in vivo, in anesthetized naturally cycling females, as model microcircuit receiving coital somatosensory information. Whole-cell recordings demonstrate that output neurons are relatively hyperpolarized in estrus and unexpectedly fire high frequency bursts of action potentials. To mimic coitus, a calibrated artificial vagino-cervical stimulation (aVCS) protocol was devised. aVCS evoked stimulus-locked local field responses in the interneuron layer independent of estrous stage. The response is sensitive to α1-adrenergic receptor blockade, as expected since aVCS increases norepinephrine release in AOB. Intriguingly, only in estrus does aVCS inhibit AOB spike output. Estrus-specific output reduction coincides with prolonged aVCS activation of inhibitory interneurons. Accordingly, in estrus the AOB microcircuit sets the stage for coital stimulation to inhibit the output neurons, possibly via high frequency bursting-dependent enhancement of reciprocal synapse efficacy between inter- and output neurons.

Identification of candidate genomic regions for egg yolk moisture content based on a genome-wide association study

BACKGROUND

Eggs represent important sources of protein and are widely loved by consumers. Egg yolk taste is an important index for egg selection, and the moisture content of the egg yolk affects the taste. To understand the molecular mechanism underlying egg yolk moisture content, this study determined the phenotype and heritability of egg yolk water content and conducted a genome-wide association study (GWAS) using a mixed linear model.

RESULTS

We determined the phenotype and heritability of thermogelled egg yolk water content (TWC) and found that the average TWC was 47.73%. Moreover, significant variations occurred (41.06-57.12%), and the heritability was 0.11, which indicates medium-low heritability. Through the GWAS, 48 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) related to TWC (20 significantly, 28 suggestively) were obtained, and they were mainly located on chromosomes 10 and 13. We identified 36 candidate genes based on gene function and found that they were mainly involved in regulating fat, protein, and water content and embryonic development. FGF9, PIAS1, FEM1B, NOX5, GLCE, VDAC1, IGFBP7, and THOC5 were involved in lipid formation and regulation; AP3S2, GNPDA1, HSPA4, AP1B1, CABP7, EEF1D, SYTL3, PPP2CA, SKP1, and UBE2B were involved in protein folding and hydrolysis; and CSF2, SOWAHA, GDF9, FSTL4, RAPGEF6, PAQR5, and ZMAT5 were related to embryonic development and egg production. Moreover, MICU2, ITGA11, WDR76, BLM, ANPEP, TECRL, EWSR1, and P4HA2 were related to yolk quality, while ITGA11, WDR76, BLM, and ANPEP were potentially significantly involved in egg yolk water content and thus deserve further attention and research. In addition, this study identified a 19.31-19.92 Mb genome region on GGA10, and a linkage disequilibrium analysis identified strong correlations within this region. Thus, GGA10 may represent a candidate region for TWC traits.

CONCLUSION

The molecular genetic mechanism involved in TWC was revealed through heritability measurements and GWAS, which identified a series of SNPs, candidate genes, and candidate regions related to TWC. These results provide insights on the molecular mechanism of egg yolk moisture content and may aid in the development of new egg traits.

Estradiol regulates voltage-gated potassium currents in corticotropin-releasing hormone neurons

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) neurons are the primary neural population controlling the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the secretion of adrenal stress hormones. Previous work has demonstrated that stress hormone secretion can be regulated by circulating levels of estradiol. However, the effect of estradiol on CRH neuron excitability is less clear. Here, we show that chronic estradiol replacement following ovariectomy increases two types of potassium channel currents in CRH neurons: fast inactivating voltage-gated A-type K+ channel currents (IA) and non-inactivating M-type K+ channel currents (IM). Despite the increase in K+ currents following estradiol replacement, there was no overall change in CRH neuron spiking excitability assessed with either frequency-current curves or current ramps. Together, these data reveal a complex picture whereby ovariectomy and estradiol replacement differentially modulate distinct aspects of CRH neuron and HPA axis function.

gBLUP-GWAS identifies candidate genes, signaling pathways, and putative functional polymorphisms for age at puberty in gilts

Successful development of replacement gilts determines their reproductive longevity and lifetime productivity. Selection for reproductive longevity is challenging due to low heritability and expression late in life. In pigs, age at puberty is the earliest known indicator for reproductive longevity and gilts that reach puberty earlier have a greater probability of producing more lifetime litters. Failure of gilts to reach puberty and display a pubertal estrus is a major reason for early removal of replacement gilts. To identify genomic sources of variation in age at puberty for improving genetic selection for early age at puberty and related traits, gilts (n = 4,986) from a multigeneration population representing commercially available maternal genetic lines were used for a genomic best linear unbiased prediction-based genome-wide association. Twenty-one genome-wide significant single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) located on Sus scrofa chromosomes (SSC) 1, 2, 9, and 14 were identified with additive effects ranging from -1.61 to 1.92 d (P < 0.0001 to 0.0671). Novel candidate genes and signaling pathways were identified for age at puberty. The locus on SSC9 (83.7 to 86.7 Mb) was characterized by long range linkage disequilibrium and harbors the AHR transcription factor gene. A second candidate gene on SSC2 (82.7 Mb), ANKRA2, is a corepressor for AHR, suggesting a possible involvement of AHR signaling in regulating pubertal onset in pigs. Putative functional SNP associated with age at puberty in the AHR and ANKRA2 genes were identified. Combined analysis of these SNP showed that an increase in the number of favorable alleles reduced pubertal age by 5.84 ± 1.65 d (P < 0.001). Candidate genes for age at puberty showed pleiotropic effects with other fertility functions such as gonadotropin secretion (FOXD1), follicular development (BMP4), pregnancy (LIF), and litter size (MEF2C). Several candidate genes and signaling pathways identified in this study play a physiological role in the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis and mechanisms permitting puberty onset. Variants located in or near these genes require further characterization to identify their impact on pubertal onset in gilts. Because age at puberty is an indicator of future reproductive success, these SNP are expected to improve genomic predictions for component traits of sow fertility and lifetime productivity expressed later in life.

[Mibefradil improves skeletal muscle mass, function and structure in obese mice]

OBJECTIVE

To observe the effect of mibefradil on skeletal muscle mass, function and structure in obese mice.

METHODS

Fifteen 6-week-old C57BL/6 mice were randomized equally into normal diet group (control group), high-fat diet (HFD) group and high-fat diet +mibefradil intervention group (HFD +Mibe group). The grip strength of the mice was measured using an electronic grip strength meter, and the muscle content of the hindlimb was analyzed by X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Triglyceride (TG) and total cholesterol (TC) levels of the mice were measured with GPO-PAP method. The cross-sectional area of the muscle fibers was observed with HE staining. The changes in the level of autophagy in the muscles were detected by Western blotting and immunofluorescence assay, and the activation of the Akt/mTOR signaling pathway was detected with Western blotting.

RESULTS

Compared with those in the control group, the mice in HFD group had a significantly greater body weight, lower relative grip strength, smaller average cross sectional area of the muscle fibers, and a lower hindlimb muscle ratio (P < 0.05). Immunofluorescence assay revealed a homogenous distribution of LC3 emitting light red fluorescence in the cytoplasm in the muscle cells in HFD group and HFD+Mibe group, while bright spots of red fluorescence were detected in HFD group. In HFD group, the muscular tissues of the mice showed an increased expression level of LC3 II protein with lowered expressions of p62 protein and phosphorylated AKT and mTOR (P < 0.05). Mibefradil treatment significantly reduced body weight of the mice, lowered the expression level of p62 protein, and increased forelimb grip strength, hindlimb muscle ratio, cross-sectional area of the muscle fibers, and the expression levels of LC3 II protein and phosphorylated AKT and mTOR (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Mibefradil treatment can moderate high-fat diet-induced weight gain and improve muscle mass and function in obese mice possibly by activating AKT/mTOR signal pathway to improve lipid metabolism and inhibit obesityinduced autophagy.

Calcium- and Integrin-Binding Protein 2 (CIB2) in Physiology and Disease: Bright and Dark Sides

Calcium- and integrin-binding protein 2 (CIB2) is a small EF-hand protein capable of binding Mg²⁺ and Ca²⁺ ions. While its biological function remains largely unclear, an increasing number of studies have shown that CIB2 is an essential component of the mechano-transduction machinery that operates in cochlear hair cells. Mutations in the gene encoding CIB2 have been associated with non-syndromic deafness. In addition to playing an important role in the physiology of hearing, CIB2 has been implicated in a multitude of very different processes, ranging from integrin signaling in platelets and skeletal muscle to autophagy, suggesting extensive functional plasticity. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of biochemical and biophysical properties of CIB2 and the biological roles that have been proposed for the protein in a variety of processes. We also highlight the many molecular aspects that remain unclarified and deserve further investigation.

TRPM3 in the eye and in the nervous system - from new findings to novel mechanisms

The calcium-permeable cation channel TRPM3 can be activated by heat and the endogenous steroid pregnenolone sulfate. TRPM3's best understood function is its role as a peripheral noxious heat sensor in mice. However, the channel is expressed in various tissues and cell types including neurons as well as glial and epithelial cells. TRPM3 expression patterns differ between species and change during development. Furthermore, a plethora of TRPM3 variants that result from alternative splicing have been identified and the majority of these isoforms are yet to be characterized. Moreover, the mechanisms underlying regulation of TRPM3 are largely unexplored. In addition, a micro-RNA gene (miR-204) is located within the TRPM3 gene. This complexity makes it difficult to obtain a clear picture of TRPM3 characteristics. However, a clear picture is needed to unravel TRPM3's full potential as experimental tool, diagnostic marker and therapeutic target. Therefore, the newest data related to TRPM3 have to be discussed and to be put in context as soon as possible to be up-to-date and to accelerate the translation from bench to bedside. The aim of this review is to highlight recent results and developments with particular focus on findings from studies involving ocular tissues and cells or peripheral neurons of rodents and humans.

Migraine-relevant sex-dependent activation of mouse meningeal afferents by TRPM3 agonists

Background

Migraine is a common brain disorder that predominantly affects women. Migraine pain seems mediated by the activation of mechanosensitive channels in meningeal afferents. Given the role of transient receptor potential melastatin 3 (TRPM3) channels in mechanical activation, as well as hormonal regulation, these channels may play a role in the sex difference in migraine. Therefore, we investigated whether nociceptive firing induced by TRPM3 channel agonists in meningeal afferents was different between male and female mice. In addition, we assessed the relative contribution of mechanosensitive TRPM3 channels and that of mechanosensitive Piezo1 channels and transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) channels to nociceptive firing relevant to migraine in both sexes.

Methods

Ten- to 13-week-old male and female wildtype (WT) C57BL/6 J mice were used. Nociceptive spikes were recorded directly from nerve terminals in the meninges in the hemiskull preparations.

Results

Selective agonists of TRPM3 channels profoundly activated peripheral trigeminal nerve fibres in mouse meninges. A sex difference was observed for nociceptive firing induced by either PregS or CIM0216, both agonists of TRPM3 channels, with the induced firing being particularly prominent for female mice. Application of Yoda1, an agonist of Piezo1 channels, or capsaicin activating TRPV1 channels, although also leading to increased nociceptive firing of meningeal fibres, did not reveal a sex difference. Cluster analyses of spike activities indicated a massive and long-lasting activation of TRPM3 channels with preferential induction of large-amplitude spikes in female mice. Additional spectral analysis revealed ​a dominant contribution of spiking activity in the α- and β-ranges following TRPM3 agonists in female mice.

Conclusions

Together, we revealed a specific mechanosensitive profile of nociceptive firing in females and suggest TRPM3 channels as a potential novel candidate for the generation of migraine pain, with particular relevance to females.

Plasticity of intrinsic excitability across the estrous cycle in hypothalamic CRH neurons

Stress responses are highly plastic and vary across physiological states. The female estrous cycle is associated with a number of physiological changes including changes in stress responses, however, the mechanisms driving these changes are poorly understood. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) neurons are the primary neural population controlling the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and stress-evoked corticosterone secretion. Here we show that CRH neuron intrinsic excitability is regulated over the estrous cycle with a peak in proestrus and a nadir in estrus. Fast inactivating voltage-gated potassium channel (I_A) currents showed the opposite relationship, with current density being lowest in proestrus compared to other cycle stages. Blocking I_A currents equalized excitability across cycle stages revealing a role for I_A in mediating plasticity in stress circuit function over the female estrous cycle.

Detection of loci exhibiting pleiotropic effects on body weight and egg number in female broilers

The objective of the present study was to discover the genetic variants, functional candidate genes, biological processes and molecular functions underlying the negative genetic correlation observed between body weight (BW) and egg number (EN) traits in female broilers. To this end, first a bivariate genome-wide association and second stepwise conditional-joint analyses were performed using 2586 female broilers and 240 k autosomal SNPs. The aforementioned analyses resulted in a total number of 49 independent cross-phenotype (CP) significant SNPs with 35 independent markers showing antagonistic action i.e., positive effects on one trait and negative effects on the other trait. A number of 33 independent CP SNPs were located within 26 and 14 protein coding and long non-coding RNA genes, respectively. Furthermore, 26 independent markers were situated within 44 reported QTLs, most of them related to growth traits. Investigation of the functional role of protein coding genes via pathway and gene ontology analyses highlighted four candidates (CPEB3, ACVR1, MAST2 and CACNA1H) as most plausible pleiotropic genes for the traits under study. Three candidates (CPEB3, MAST2 and CACNA1H) were associated with antagonistic pleiotropy, while ACVR1 with synergistic pleiotropic action. Current results provide a novel insight into the biological mechanism of the genetic trade-off between growth and reproduction, in broilers.

Gonadal Cycle-Dependent Expression of Genes Encoding Peptide-, Growth Factor-, and Orphan G-Protein-Coupled Receptors in Gonadotropin- Releasing Hormone Neurons of Mice

Rising serum estradiol triggers the surge release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) at late proestrus leading to ovulation. We hypothesized that proestrus evokes alterations in peptidergic signaling onto GnRH neurons inducing a differential expression of neuropeptide-, growth factor-, and orphan G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) genes. Thus, we analyzed the transcriptome of GnRH neurons collected from intact, proestrous and metestrous GnRH-green fluorescent protein (GnRH-GFP) transgenic mice using Affymetrix microarray technique. Proestrus resulted in a differential expression of genes coding for peptide/neuropeptide receptors including Adipor1, Prokr1, Ednrb, Rtn4r, Nmbr, Acvr2b, Sctr, Npr3, Nmur1, Mc3r, Cckbr, and Amhr2. In this gene cluster, Adipor1 mRNA expression was upregulated and the others were downregulated. Expression of growth factor receptors and their related proteins was also altered showing upregulation of Fgfr1, Igf1r, Grb2, Grb10, and Ngfrap1 and downregulation of Egfr and Tgfbr2 genes. Gpr107, an orphan GPCR, was upregulated during proestrus, while others were significantly downregulated (Gpr1, Gpr87, Gpr18, Gpr62, Gpr125, Gpr183, Gpr4, and Gpr88). Further affected receptors included vomeronasal receptors (Vmn1r172, Vmn2r-ps54, and Vmn1r148) and platelet-activating factor receptor (Ptafr), all with marked downregulation. Patch-clamp recordings from mouse GnRH-GFP neurons carried out at metestrus confirmed that the differentially expressed IGF-1, secretin, and GPR107 receptors were operational, as their activation by specific ligands evoked an increase in the frequency of miniature postsynaptic currents (mPSCs). These findings show the contribution of certain novel peptides, growth factors, and ligands of orphan GPCRs to regulation of GnRH neurons and their preparation for the surge release.

Role of potassium channels in female reproductive system

Potassium channels are widely expressed in most types of cells in living organisms and regulate the functions of a variety of organs, including kidneys, neurons, cardiovascular organs, and pancreas among others. However, the functional roles of potassium channels in the reproductive system is less understood. This mini-review provides information about the localization and functions of potassium channels in the female reproductive system. Five types of potassium channels, which include inward-rectifying (Kir), voltage-gated (Kv), calcium-activated (K_Ca), 2-pore domain (K_2P), and rapidly-gating sodium-activated (Slo) potassium channels are expressed in the hypothalamus, ovaries, and uterus. Their functions include the regulation of hormone release and feedback by Kir6.1 and Kir6.2, which are expressed in the luteal granulosa cells and gonadotropin-releasing hormone neurons respectively, and regulate the functioning of the hypothalamus–pituitary–ovarian axis and the production of progesterone. Both channels are regulated by subtypes of the sulfonylurea receptor (SUR), Kir6.1/SUR2B and Kir6.2/SUR1. K_v and Slo2.1 affect the transition from uterine quiescence in late pregnancy to the state of strong myometrial contractions in labor. Intermediate- and small-conductance K_Ca modulate the vasodilatation of the placental chorionic plate resistance arteries via the secretion of nitric oxide and endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factors. Treatment with specific channel activators and inhibitors provides information relevant for clinical use that could help alter the functions of the female reproductive system.

CACNA1H downregulation induces skeletal muscle atrophy involving endoplasmic reticulum stress activation and autophagy flux blockade

Multiple vaginal delivery (MVD) is an important factor for pelvic floor muscle (PFM) function decline and pelvic floor dysfunction (PFD). PFD is common in middle-aged and elderly women, but its pathogenesis is not clear. In this study, we found that the expression of CACNA1H was lower in the PFM of old mice after MVD compared with old or adult mice. In in-vitro studies, we found that treatment with the T-type Ca²⁺ channel (T-channel) inhibitor NNC-55 or downregulation of the CACNA1H gene by siRNA intervention promoted myotube atrophy and apoptosis. Mechanistically, we revealed that NNC-55 increased the expression of GRP78 and DDIT3 in myotubes, indicating endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) activation, and that the IRE1 and PERK pathways might be involved in this effect. NNC-55 induced the formation of autophagosomes but inhibited autophagy flux. Moreover, rapamycin, an autophagy activator, did not rescue myotube atrophy or apoptosis induced by NNC-55, and the autophagy inhibitors 3-MA and HCQ accelerated this damage. Further studies showed that the ERS inhibitors 4-PBA and TUDAC relieved NNC-55-induced damage and autophagy flux blockade. Finally, we found multisite muscle atrophy and decreased muscle function in Cacna1h^−/− (TH-null) mice, as well as increased autophagy inhibition and apoptotic signals in the PFM of old WT mice after MVD and TH-null mice. Taken together, our results suggest that MVD-associated PFD is partially attributed to CACNA1H downregulation-induced PFM atrophy and that ERS is a potential therapeutic target for this disease.