Extracellular RNA in Central Nervous System Pathologies

Gelatin methacryloyl microneedle loaded with 3D-MSC-Exosomes for the protection of ischemia-reperfusion

Exosomes (Exo) generated from mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have great therapeutic potential in ischemia-reperfusion treatment. For best therapeutic effect, high quality Exo product and effective delivery system are indispensable. In this study, we developed a new strategy for ischemia-reperfusion recovery by combining MSCs 3D (3D-MSC) culturing technology to generate Exo (3D-MSC-Exo) and microneedle for topical delivery. Firstly, primary MSCs from neonatal mice were isolated and 3D cultured with gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) hydrogel to prepare 3D-MSC-Exo. The 3D-MSC showed better viability and 3D-MSC-Exo exhibited more effective effects of reducing neuroinflammation, inhibiting glial scarring, and promoting angiogenesis. Subsequently, the biocompatible GelMA was used to construct microneedles for 3D-Exo delivery (GelMA-MN@3D-Exo). The results demonstrated GelMA microneedles had excellent 3D-Exo loading capacity and enabled continuous 3D-Exo release to maintain effective therapeutic concentrations. Furthermore, the rat middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model was established to evaluate the therapeutic effect of GelMA-MN@3D-Exo in ischemia-reperfusion in vivo. Animal experiments showed that the GelMA-MN@3D-Exo system could effectively reduce the local neuroinflammatory reaction, promote angiogenesis and minimize glial scar proliferation in ischemia-reperfusion. The underlying reasons for the stronger neuroprotective effect of 3D-Exo was further studied using mass spectrometry and transcriptome assays, verifying their effects on immune regulation and cell proliferation. Taken together, our findings demonstrated that GelMA-MN@3D-Exo microneedle can effectively attenuate ischemia-reperfusion cell damage in the MCAO model, which provides a promising therapeutic strategy for ischemia-reperfusion recovery.

Treatment with RNase alleviates brain injury but not neuroinflammation in neonatal hypoxia/ischemia

There is a need for new treatments to reduce brain injuries derived from neonatal hypoxia/ischemia. The only viable option used in the clinic today in infants born at term is therapeutic hypothermia, which has a limited efficacy. Treatments with exogenous RNase have shown great promise in a range of different adult animal models including stroke, ischemia/reperfusion injury, or experimental heart transplantation, often by conferring vascular protective and anti-inflammatory effects. However, any neuroprotective function of RNase treatment in the neonate remains unknown. Using a well-established model of neonatal hypoxic/ischemic brain injury, we evaluated the influence of RNase treatment on RNase activity, gray and white matter tissue loss, blood-brain barrier function, as well as levels and expression of inflammatory cytokines in the brain up to 6 h after the injury using multiplex immunoassay and RT-PCR. Intraperitoneal treatment with RNase increased RNase activity in both plasma and cerebropinal fluids. The RNase treatment resulted in a reduction of brain tissue loss but did not affect the blood-brain barrier function and had only a minor modulatory effect on the inflammatory response. It is concluded that RNase treatment may be promising as a neuroprotective regimen, whereas the mechanistic effects of this treatment appear to be different in the neonate compared to the adult and need further investigation.

Effect of Extracellular Ribonucleic Acids on Neurovascularization in Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis is a degenerative disease characterized by abnormal neurovascularization at the osteochondral junctions, the regulatory mechanisms of which remain poorly understood. In the present study, a murine osteoarthritic model with augmented neurovascularization at the osteochondral junction is used to examine this under-evaluated facet of degenerative joint dysfunction. Increased extracellular RNA (exRNA) content is identified in neurovascularized osteoarthritic joints. It is found that the amount of exRNA is positively correlated with the extent of neurovascularization and the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). In vitro binding assay and molecular docking demonstrate that synthetic RNAs bind to VEGF via electrostatic interactions. The RNA-VEGF complex promotes the migration and function of endothelial progenitor cells and trigeminal ganglion cells. The use of VEGF and VEGFR2 inhibitors significantly inhibits the amplification of the RNA-VEGF complex. Disruption of the RNA-VEGF complex by RNase and polyethyleneimine reduces its in vitro activities, as well as prevents excessive neurovascularization and osteochondral deterioration in vivo. The results of the present study suggest that exRNAs may be potential targets for regulating nerve and blood vessel ingrowth under physiological and pathological joint conditions.

Brain alarm by self-extracellular nucleic acids: from neuroinflammation to neurodegeneration

Neurological disorders such as stroke, multiple sclerosis, as well as the neurodegenerative diseases Parkinson's or Alzheimer's disease are accompanied or even powered by danger associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), defined as endogenous molecules released from stressed or damaged tissue. Besides protein-related DAMPs or "alarmins", numerous nucleic acid DAMPs exist in body fluids, such as cell-free nuclear and mitochondrial DNA as well as different species of extracellular RNA, collectively termed as self-extracellular nucleic acids (SENAs). Among these, microRNA, long non-coding RNAs, circular RNAs and extracellular ribosomal RNA constitute the majority of RNA-based DAMPs. Upon tissue injury, necrosis or apoptosis, such SENAs are released from neuronal, immune and other cells predominantly in association with extracellular vesicles and may be translocated to target cells where they can induce intracellular regulatory pathways in gene transcription and translation. The majority of SENA-induced signaling reactions in the brain appear to be related to neuroinflammatory processes, often causally associated with the onset or progression of the respective disease. In this review, the impact of the diverse types of SENAs on neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative diseases will be discussed. Based on the accumulating knowledge in this field, several specific antagonistic approaches are presented that could serve as therapeutic interventions to lower the pathological outcome of the indicated brain disorders.

Extracellular RNAs-TLR3 signaling contributes to cognitive impairment after chronic neuropathic pain in mice

Chronic pain is often associated with cognitive decline, which could influence the quality of the patient's life. Recent studies have suggested that Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) is crucial for memory and learning. Nonetheless, the contribution of TLR3 to the pathogenesis of cognitive decline after chronic pain remains unclear. The level of TLR3 in hippocampal neurons increased in the chronic constriction injury (CCI) group than in the sham group in this study. Importantly, compared to the wild-type (WT) mice, TLR3 knockout (KO) mice and TLR3-specific neuronal knockdown mice both displayed improved cognitive function, reduced levels of inflammatory cytokines and neuronal apoptosis and attenuated injury to hippocampal neuroplasticity. Notably, extracellular RNAs (exRNAs), specifically double-stranded RNAs (dsRNAs), were increased in the sciatic nerve, serum, and hippocampus after CCI. The co-localization of dsRNA with TLR3 was also increased in hippocampal neurons. And the administration of poly (I:C), a dsRNA analog, elevated the levels of dsRNAs and TLR3 in the hippocampus, exacerbating hippocampus-dependent memory. In additon, the dsRNA/TLR3 inhibitor improved cognitive function after CCI. Together, our findings suggested that exRNAs, particularly dsRNAs, that were present in the condition of chronic neuropathic pain, activated TLR3, initiated downstream inflammatory and apoptotic signaling, caused damage to synaptic plasticity, and contributed to the etiology of cognitive impairment after chronic neuropathic pain.

Functions and cellular signaling by ribosomal extracellular RNA (rexRNA): Facts and hypotheses on a non-typical DAMP

Upon microbial infections with the subsequent host response of innate immunity, a variety of fragmented RNA- and DNA-based "Pathogen-associated molecular patterns" (PAMPs) are recognized mainly by endosomal or cytoplasmic host cell "Pattern recognition receptors" (PRRs), particularly "Toll-like receptors" (TLRs). Concomitantly, various self-extracellular RNA species (exRNAs) are present in extracellular body fluids where they contribute to diverse physiological and homeostatic processes. In principle, such exRNAs, including the most abundant one, ribosomal exRNA (rexRNA), are designated as "Danger-associated molecular patterns" (DAMPs) and are prevented by e.g. natural modifications from uncontrolled signaling via TLRs to avoid hyper-inflammatory responses or autoimmunity. Upon cellular stress or tissue damage/necrosis, the levels and composition of released self-exRNA species, either in free form, in complex with proteins or in association with extracellular vesicles (EVs), can change considerably. Among the self-exRNAs, rexRNA is considered as a non-typical DAMP, since it may induce inflammatory responses by cell membrane receptors, both in the absence or presence of PAMPs. Yet, its mode of receptor activation to mount inflammatory responses remains obscure. RexRNA also serves as a universal damaging factor in cardiovascular and other diseases independent of PRRs. In general, RNase1 provides a profound antagonist in these pathologies and in rexRNA-mediated inflammatory cell responses. Based on the extrapolation of the here described aspects of rexRNA-biology, further activities of this molecular entity are hypothesized that may stimulate additional research in this area.

Exosomal noncoding RNAs in central nervous system diseases: biological functions and potential clinical applications

Central nervous system (CNS) disease is a general term for a series of complex and diverse diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), multiple sclerosis (MS), CNS tumors, stroke, epilepsy, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Interneuron and neuron-glia cells communicate with each other through their homeostatic microenvironment. Exosomes in the microenvironment have crucial impacts on interneuron and neuron-glia cells by transferring their contents, such as proteins, lipids, and ncRNAs, constituting a novel form of cell-to-cell interaction and communication. Exosomal noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs), including microRNAs (miRNAs), long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), circular RNAs (circRNAs), and PIWI-interacting RNAs (piRNAs), regulate physiological functions and maintain CNS homeostasis. Exosomes are regarded as extracellular messengers that transfer ncRNAs between neurons and body fluids due to their ability to cross the blood-brain barrier. This review aims to summarize the current understanding of exosomal ncRNAs in CNS diseases, including prospective diagnostic biomarkers, pathological regulators, therapeutic strategies and clinical applications. We also provide an all-sided discussion of the comparison with some similar CNS diseases and the main limitations and challenges for exosomal ncRNAs in clinical applications.

Extracellular microRNA and cognitive function in a prospective cohort of older men: The Veterans Affairs Normative Aging Study

BACKGROUND

Aging-related cognitive decline is an early symptom of Alzheimer's disease and other dementias, and on its own can have substantial consequences on an individual's ability to perform important everyday functions. Despite increasing interest in the potential roles of extracellular microRNAs (miRNAs) in central nervous system (CNS) pathologies, there has been little research on extracellular miRNAs in early stages of cognitive decline. We leverage the longitudinal Normative Aging Study (NAS) cohort to investigate associations between plasma miRNAs and cognitive function among cognitively normal men.

METHODS

This study includes data from up to 530 NAS participants (median age: 71.0 years) collected from 1996 to 2013, with a total of 1,331 person-visits (equal to 2,471 years of follow up). Global cognitive function was assessed using the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). Plasma miRNAs were profiled using small RNA sequencing. Associations of expression of 381 miRNAs with current cognitive function and rate of change in cognitive function were assessed using linear regression (N = 457) and linear mixed models (N = 530), respectively.

RESULTS

In adjusted models, levels of 2 plasma miRNAs were associated with higher MMSE scores (p < 0.05). Expression of 33 plasma miRNAs was associated with rate of change in MMSE scores over time (p < 0.05). Enriched KEGG pathways for miRNAs associated with concurrent MMSE and MMSE trajectory included Hippo signaling and extracellular matrix-receptor interactions. Gene targets of miRNAs associated with MMSE trajectory were additionally associated with prion diseases and fatty acid biosynthesis.

CONCLUSIONS

Circulating miRNAs were associated with both cross-sectional cognitive function and rate of change in cognitive function among cognitively normal men. Further research is needed to elucidate the potential functions of these miRNAs in the CNS and investigate relationships with other neurological outcomes.

Three-Dimensional-Cultured MSC-Derived Exosome-Hydrogel Hybrid Microneedle Array Patch for Spinal Cord Repair

Exosomes derived from mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been proven to exhibit great potentials in spinal cord injury (SCI) therapy. However, conventional two-dimensional (2D) culture will inevitably lead to the loss of stemness of MSCs, which substantially limits the therapeutic potency of MSCs exosomes (2D-Exo). Exosomes derived from three-dimensional culture (3D-Exo) possess higher therapeutic efficiency which have wide applications in spinal cord therapy. Typically, conventional exosome therapy that relies on local repeated injection results in secondary injury and low efficiency. It is urgent to develop a more reliable, convenient, and effective exosome delivery method to achieve constant in situ exosomes release. Herein, we proposed a controlled 3D-exohydrogel hybrid microneedle array patch to achieve SCI repair in situ. Our studies suggested that MSCs with 3D-culturing could maintain their stemness, and consequently, 3D-Exo effectively reduced SCI-induced inflammation and glial scarring. Thus, it is a promising therapeutic strategy for the treatment of SCI.

Role of Circular RNA in Brain Tumor Development

Central nervous system tumors are a leading cause of cancer-related death in children and adults, with medulloblastoma (MB) and glioblastoma (GBM) being the most prevalent malignant brain tumors, respectively. Despite tremendous breakthroughs in neurosurgery, radiation, and chemotherapeutic techniques, cell heterogeneity and various genetic mutations impacting cell cycle control, cell proliferation, apoptosis, and cell invasion result in unwanted resistance to treatment approaches, with a 5-year survival rate of 70–80% for medulloblastoma, and the median survival time for patients with glioblastoma is only 15 months. Developing new medicines and utilizing combination medications may be viewed as excellent techniques for battling MB and GBM. Circular RNAs (circRNAs) can affect cancer-developing processes such as cell proliferation, cell apoptosis, invasion, and chemoresistance in this regard. As a result, several compounds have been introduced as prospective therapeutic targets in the fight against MB and GBM. The current study aims to elucidate the fundamental molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of GBM in conjunction with circRNAs. Several mechanisms were examined in detail, including PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling, Wnt/-catenin signaling, angiogenic processes, and metastatic pathways, in order to provide a comprehensive knowledge of the involvement of circRNAs in the pathophysiology of MB and GBM.

Self-extracellular RNA promotes pro-inflammatory response of astrocytes to exogenous and endogenous danger signals

Objective

Astrocytes participate in the local innate immune response of the central nervous system. In response to stress such as ischemia, activated cells release endogenous factors known as damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). Self-extracellular RNA (eRNA) is such a ubiquitous alarm signal. However, it is unclear whether eRNA is involved in the early acute phase of cerebral ischemia and is sufficient to sensitize astrocytes towards a DAMP or PAMP (pathogen-associated molecular pattern) reaction.

Methods

Pro-inflammatory activation upon eRNA stimulation was characterized in primary murine astrocyte cultures. In vivo, an experimental stroke model was used to localize and quantify eRNA in murine brain sections. Using primary cortical neurons and the mouse hippocampal neuronal cell line HT-22, neuronal RNA release upon stress conditions related to cerebral hypoxia/ischemia was analyzed.

Results

While low-dose eRNA alone did not promote pro-inflammatory activation of astrocytes in culture, it strongly enhanced the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the presence of either Pam2CSK4, a synthetic PAMP molecule that mimics bacterial infection, or high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), a prominent DAMP. Synergism of eRNA/Pam2CSK4 and eRNA/HMGB1 was prevented by blockage of the astroglial toll-like receptor (TLR)-2. Inhibition of NF-κB- and mitogen-activated protein kinase-dependent signaling pathways hampered eRNA/Pam2CSK4-mediated pro-inflammatory activation of astrocytes. In vivo, the amount of non-nuclear, presumably extracellular ribosomal RNA in close proximity to neurons significantly accumulated across the infarct core and peri-infarct areas that was accompanied by transcriptional up-regulation of various pro-inflammatory factors. Accordingly, the exposure of neurons to hypoxic/ischemic stress in vitro resulted in the release of eRNA, partly mediated by active cellular processes dependent on the cytosolic calcium level.

Conclusion

The DAMP signal eRNA can sensitize astrocytes as active players in cerebral innate immunity towards exogenous and endogenous activators of inflammation (PAMPs and DAMPs) in a synergistic manner via TLR2-NF-κB-dependent signaling mechanisms. These findings provide new insights into the pathogenesis of ischemic stroke and other inflammatory neurological disorders. Further studies will clarify whether administration of RNase in vivo may serve as an effective treatment for inflammatory brain pathologies.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12974-021-02286-w.

RNase A Inhibits Formation of Neutrophil Extracellular Traps in Subarachnoid Hemorrhage

Background: Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) caused by rupture of an intracranial aneurysm, is a life-threatening emergency that is associated with substantial morbidity and mortality. Emerging evidence suggests involvement of the innate immune response in secondary brain injury, and a potential role of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) for SAH-associated neuroinflammation. In this study, we investigated the spatiotemporal patterns of NETs in SAH and the potential role of the RNase A (the bovine equivalent to human RNase 1) application on NET burden. Methods: A total number of n=81 male C57Bl/6 mice were operated utilizing a filament perforation model to induce SAH, and Sham operation was performed for the corresponding control groups. To confirm the bleeding and exclude stroke and intracerebral hemorrhage, the animals received MRI after 24h. Mice were treated with intravenous injection of RNase A (42μg/kg body weight) or saline solution for the control groups, respectively. Quadruple-immunofluorescence (IF) staining for cell nuclei (DAPI), F-actin (phalloidin), citrullinated H3, and neurons (NeuN) was analyzed by confocal imaging and used to quantify NET abundance in the subarachnoid space (SAS) and brain parenchyma. To quantify NETs in human SAH patients, cerebrospinal spinal fluid (CSF) and blood samples from day 1, 2, 7, and 14 after bleeding onset were analyzed for double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) via Sytox Green. Results: Neutrophil extracellular traps are released upon subarachnoid hemorrhage in the SAS on the ipsilateral bleeding site 24h after ictus. Over time, NETs showed progressive increase in the parenchyma on both ipsi- and contralateral site, peaking on day 14 in periventricular localization. In CSF and blood samples of patients with aneurysmal SAH, NETs also increased gradually over time with a peak on day 7. RNase application significantly reduced NET accumulation in basal, cortical, and periventricular areas. Conclusion: Neutrophil extracellular trap formation following SAH originates in the ipsilateral SAS of the bleeding site and spreads gradually over time to basal, cortical, and periventricular areas in the parenchyma within 14days. Intravenous RNase application abrogates NET burden significantly in the brain parenchyma, underpinning a potential role in modulation of the innate immune activation after SAH.

Epigenetics of Aggression

Aggression is a complex behavioral trait modulated by both genetic and environmental influences on gene expression. By controlling gene expression in a reversible yet potentially lasting manner in response to environmental stimulation, epigenetic mechanisms represent prime candidates in explaining both individual differences in aggression and the development of elevated aggressive behaviors following life adversity. In this manuscript, we review the evidence for an epigenetic basis in the development and expression of aggression in both humans and related preclinical animal models. In particular, we discuss reports linking DNA methylation, histone post-translational modifications, as well as non-coding RNA, to the regulation of a variety of genes implicated in the neurobiology of aggression including neuropeptides, the serotoninergic and dopaminergic systems, and stress response related systems. While clinical reports do reveal interesting patterns of DNA methylation underlying individual differences and experience-induced aggressive behaviors, they do, in general, face the challenge of linking peripheral observations to central nervous system regulations. Preclinical studies, on the other hand, provide detailed mechanistic insights into the epigenetic reprogramming of gene expression following life adversities. Although the functional link to aggression remains unclear in most, these studies together do highlight the involvement of epigenetic events driven by DNA methylation, histone modifications, and non-coding RNA in the neuroadaptations underlying the development and expression of aggression.

Glioblastoma and MiRNAs

Glioblastoma (GB) is one of the most common types of lethal brain tumors. Although several treatment options are available including surgery, along with adjuvant chemo and radiotherapy, the disease has a poor prognosis and patients generally die within 14 months of diagnosis. GB is chemo and radio resistant. Thus, there is a critical need for new insights into GB treatment to increase the chance of therapeutic success. This is why microRNA (miRNA) is being potentially considered in the diagnosis and treatment of glioblastoma. The objective of our review is to provide a holistic picture of GB up-regulated and down-regulated miRNA, in relationship with the expression of other genes, cell signaling pathways, and their role in GB diagnosis and treatment. MiRNA treatment is being considered to be used against GB together with radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Moreover, the use of miRNA as a diagnostic tool has also begun. Knowing that miRNAs are isolated in almost all human body fluids and that there are more than 3000 miRNAs in the human genome, plus the fact that each miRNA controls hundreds of different mRNAs, there is still much study needed to explore how miRNAs relate to GB for its proliferation, progression, and inhibition.

Release mechanisms of major DAMPs

Damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) are endogenous molecules which foment inflammation and are associated with disorders in sepsis and cancer. Thus, therapeutically targeting DAMPs has potential to provide novel and effective treatments. When establishing anti-DAMP strategies, it is important not only to focus on the DAMPs as inflammatory mediators but also to take into account the underlying mechanisms of their release from cells and tissues. DAMPs can be released passively by membrane rupture due to necrosis/necroptosis, although the mechanisms of release appear to differ between the DAMPs. Other types of cell death, such as apoptosis, pyroptosis, ferroptosis and NETosis, can also contribute to DAMP release. In addition, some DAMPs can be exported actively from live cells by exocytosis of secretory lysosomes or exosomes, ectosomes, and activation of cell membrane channel pores. Here we review the shared and DAMP-specific mechanisms reported in the literature for high mobility group box 1, ATP, extracellular cold-inducible RNA-binding protein, histones, heat shock proteins, extracellular RNAs and cell-free DNA.

A Five Immune-Related lncRNA Signature as a Prognostic Target for Glioblastoma

Background: A variety of regulatory approaches including immune modulation have been explored as approaches to either eradicate antitumor response or induce suppressive mechanism in the glioblastoma microenvironment. Thus, the study of immune-related long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) signature is of great value in the diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of glioblastoma.

Methods: Glioblastoma samples with lncRNA sequencing and corresponding clinical data were acquired from the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database. Immune-lncRNAs co-expression networks were built to identify immune-related lncRNAs via Pearson correlation. Based on the median risk score acquired in the training set, we divided the samples into high- and low-risk groups and demonstrate the survival prediction ability of the immune-related lncRNA signature. Both principal component analysis (PCA) and gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) were used for immune state analysis.

Results: A cohort of 151 glioblastoma samples and 730 immune-related genes were acquired in this study. A five immune-related lncRNA signature (AC046143.1, AC021054.1, AC080112.1, MIR222HG, and PRKCQ-AS1) was identified. Compared with patients in the high-risk group, patients in the low-risk group showed a longer overall survival (OS) in the training, validation, and entire TCGA set (p = 1.931e-05, p = 1.706e-02, and p = 3.397e-06, respectively). Additionally, the survival prediction ability of this lncRNA signature was independent of known clinical factors and molecular features. The area under the ROC curve (AUC) and stratified analyses were further performed to verify its optimal survival predictive potency. Of note, the high-and low-risk groups exhibited significantly distinct immune state according to the PCA and GSEA analyses.

Conclusions: Our study proposes that a five immune-related lncRNA signature can be utilized as a latent indicator of prognosis and potential therapeutic approach for glioblastoma.

A novel long intergenic non-coding RNA, Nostrill, regulates iNOS gene transcription and neurotoxicity in microglia

BACKGROUND

Microglia are resident immunocompetent and phagocytic cells in the CNS. Pro-inflammatory microglia, stimulated by microbial signals such as bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS), viral RNAs, or inflammatory cytokines, are neurotoxic and associated with pathogenesis of several neurodegenerative diseases. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNA) are emerging as important tissue-specific regulatory molecules directing cell differentiation and functional states and may help direct proinflammatory responses of microglia. Characterization of lncRNAs upregulated in proinflammatory microglia, such as NR_126553 or 2500002B13Rik, now termed Nostrill (iNOS Transcriptional Regulatory Intergenic LncRNA Locus) increases our understanding of molecular mechanisms in CNS innate immunity.

METHODS

Microglial gene expression array analyses and qRT-PCR were used to identify a novel long intergenic non-coding RNA, Nostrill, upregulated in LPS-stimulated microglial cell lines, LPS-stimulated primary microglia, and LPS-injected mouse cortical tissue. Silencing and overexpression studies, RNA immunoprecipitation, chromatin immunoprecipitation, chromatin isolation by RNA purification assays, and qRT-PCR were used to study the function of this long non-coding RNA in microglia. In vitro assays were used to examine the effects of silencing the novel long non-coding RNA in LPS-stimulated microglia on neurotoxicity.

RESULTS

We report here characterization of intergenic lncRNA, NR_126553, or 2500002B13Rik now termed Nostrill (iNOS Transcriptional Regulatory Intergenic LncRNA Locus). Nostrill is induced by LPS stimulation in BV2 cells, primary murine microglia, and in cortical tissue of LPS-injected mice. Induction of Nostrill is NF-κB dependent and silencing of Nostrill decreased inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression and nitric oxide (NO) production in BV2 and primary microglial cells. Overexpression of Nostrill increased iNOS expression and NO production. RNA immunoprecipitation assays demonstrated that Nostrill is physically associated with NF-κB subunit p65 following LPS stimulation. Silencing of Nostrill significantly reduced NF-κB p65 and RNA polymerase II recruitment to the iNOS promoter and decreased H3K4me3 activating histone modifications at iNOS gene loci. In vitro studies demonstrated that silencing of Nostrill in microglia reduced LPS-stimulated microglial neurotoxicity.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data indicate a new regulatory role of the NF-κB-induced Nostrill and suggest that Nostrill acts as a co-activator of transcription of iNOS resulting in the production of nitric oxide by microglia through modulation of epigenetic chromatin remodeling. Nostrill may be a target for reducing the neurotoxicity associated with iNOS-mediated inflammatory processes in microglia during neurodegeneration.

Extracellular RNA as a Versatile DAMP and Alarm Signal That Influences Leukocyte Recruitment in Inflammation and Infection

Upon vascular injury, tissue damage, ischemia, or microbial infection, intracellular material such as nucleic acids and histones is liberated and comes into contact with the vessel wall and circulating blood cells. Such "Danger-associated molecular patterns" (DAMPs) may thus have an enduring influence on the inflammatory defense process that involves leukocyte recruitment and wound healing reactions. While different species of extracellular RNA (exRNA), including microRNAs and long non-coding RNAs, have been implicated to influence inflammatory processes at different levels, recent in vitro and in vivo work has demonstrated a major impact of ribosomal exRNA as a prominent DAMP on various steps of leukocyte recruitment within the innate immune response. This includes the induction of vascular hyper-permeability and vasogenic edema by exRNA via the activation of the "vascular endothelial growth factor" (VEGF) receptor-2 system, as well as the recruitment of leukocytes to the inflamed endothelium, the M1-type polarization of inflammatory macrophages, or the role of exRNA as a pro-thrombotic cofactor to promote thrombosis. Beyond sterile inflammation, exRNA also augments the docking of bacteria to host cells and the subsequent microbial invasion. Moreover, upon vessel occlusion and ischemia, the shear stress-induced release of exRNA initiates arteriogenesis (i.e., formation of natural vessel bypasses) in a multistep process that resembles leukocyte recruitment. Although exRNA can be counteracted for by natural circulating RNase1, under the conditions mentioned, only the administration of exogenous, thermostable, non-toxic RNase1 provides an effective and safe therapeutic regimen for treating the damaging activities of exRNA. It remains to be investigated whether exRNA may also influence viral infections (including COVID-19), e.g., by supporting the interaction of host cells with viral particles and their subsequent invasion. In fact, as a consequence of the viral infection cycle, massive amounts of exRNA are liberated, which can provoke further tissue damage and enhance virus dissemination. Whether the application of RNase1 in this scenario may help to limit the extent of viral infections like COVID-19 and impact on leukocyte recruitment and emigration steps in immune defense in order to limit the extent of associated cardiovascular diseases remains to be studied.

Mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicle-based therapies protect against coupled degeneration of the central nervous and vascular systems in stroke

Stem cell-based treatments have been suggested as promising candidates for stroke. Recently, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been reported as potential therapeutics for a wide range of diseases. In particular, clinical trial studies have suggested MSCs for stroke therapy. The focus of MSC treatments has been directed towards cell replacement. However, recent research has lately highlighted their paracrine actions. The secretion of extracellular vesicles (EVs) is offered to be the main therapeutic mechanism of MSC therapy. However, EV-based treatments may provide a wider therapeutic window compared to tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), the traditional treatment for stroke. Exosomes are nano-sized EVs secreted by most cell types, and can be isolated from conditioned cell media or body fluids such as plasma, urine, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Exosomes apply their effects through targeting their cargos such as microRNAs (miRs), DNAs, messenger RNAs, and proteins at the host cells, which leads to a shift in the behavior of the recipient cells. It has been indicated that exosomes, in particular their functional cargoes, play a significant role in the coupled pathogenesis and recovery of stroke through affecting the neurovascular unit (NVU). Therefore, it seems that exosomes could be utilized as diagnostic and therapeutic tools in stroke treatment. The miRs are small endogenous non-coding RNA molecules which serve as the main functional cargo of exosomes, and apply their effects as epigenetic regulators. These versatile non-coding RNA molecules are involved in various stages of stroke and affect stroke-related factors. Moreover, the involvement of aging-induced changes to specific miRs profile in stroke further highlights the role of miRs. Thus, miRs could be utilized as diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic tools in stroke. In this review, we discuss the roles of stem cells, exosomes, and their application in stroke therapy. We also highlight the usage of miRs as a therapeutic choice in stroke therapy.

Small Things Matter: Relevance of MicroRNAs in Cardiovascular Disease

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are short sequences of non-coding RNA that play an important role in the regulation of gene expression and thereby in many physiological and pathological processes. Furthermore, miRNAs are released in the extracellular space, for example in vesicles, and are detectable in various biological fluids, such as serum, plasma, and urine. Over the last years, it has been shown that miRNAs are crucial in the development of several cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). This review discusses the (patho)physiological implications of miRNAs in CVD, ranging from cardiovascular risk factors (i.e., hypertension, diabetes, dyslipidemia), to atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, and cardiac remodeling. Moreover, the intriguing possibility of their use as disease-specific diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers for human CVDs will be discussed in detail. Finally, as several approaches have been developed to alter miRNA expression and function (i.e., mimics, antagomirs, and target-site blockers), we will highlight the miRNAs with the most promising therapeutic potential that may represent suitable candidates for therapeutic intervention in future translational studies and ultimately in clinical trials. All in all, this review gives a comprehensive overview of the most relevant miRNAs in CVD and discusses their potential use as biomarkers and even therapeutic targets.

MicroRNAs in gray and white matter multiple sclerosis lesions: impact on pathophysiology

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic disease of the CNS, hallmarked by inflammation and demyelination. Early stages of the disease frequently show active lesions containing numerous foamy macrophages and inflammatory cells. Disease progression is highlighted by increasing numbers of mixed active/inactive or inactive lesions showing sparse inflammation and pronounced astrogliosis. Furthermore, gray matter lesions increase in number and extent during disease progression. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) comprise a group of several thousand (in humans more than 2000), small non-coding RNA molecules with a fundamental influence on about one-third of all protein-coding genes. Furthermore, miRNAs have been detected in body fluids, including spinal fluid, and they are assumed to participate in intercellular communications. Several studies have determined miRNA profiles from dissected white and gray matter lesions of autoptic MS patients. In this review, we summarize in detail the current knowledge of individual miRNAs in gray and white matter lesions of MS patients and present the concepts of MS tissue lesion development based on the altered miRNA profiles. © 2020 The Authors. The Journal of Pathology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.

Altered serum microRNA expression profile in subjects with heroin and methamphetamine use disorder

OBJECTIVES

Drug abuse is one of the most severe global social and public health problems, especially in China. However, objective blood biomarkers that are easy to detect are still in great need. This study was aim to explore the expression pattern of circulating microRNAs (miRNAs) in subjects with drug addiction and test the potential of altered serum miRNAs as noninvasive diagnostic tools for drug abuse.

METHODS

Serum samples were obtained from 42 heroin abusers, 42 methamphetamine (MA) abusers and 42 controls. Microarray-based miRNA analysis was first applied to screen unique serum miRNA profiles in drug abusers on a training set of serum samples from 12 heroin abusers, 12 MA abusers and 12 control subjects. The expression levels of selected candidate miRNAs were subsequently verified in individual samples of the training set and further confirmed independently in a validation set of samples from 30 heroin abusers, 30 MA abusers and 30 controls using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR).

RESULTS

Microarray analysis identified 116 and 109 significantly altered miRNAs in heroin abusers and MA abusers, respectively. Three miRNAs, including let-7b-5p, miR-206 and miR-486-5p, were verified to be significantly and steadily increased in heroin abusers, and miR-9-3p was significantly increased in MA abusers compared with normal controls. The areas under the curve (AUCs) of the ROC curve of these miRNAs ranged from 0.718 to 0.867.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study raises the possibility that the altered serum miRNAs could potentially be used as an auxiliary tool to identify individuals in drug abuse and addiction.