MicroRNAs as T Lymphocyte Regulators in Multiple Sclerosis

A Literature Review and Meta-Analysis on the Potential Use of miR-150 as a Novel Biomarker in the Detection and Progression of Multiple Sclerosis

BACKGROUND

MicroRNA-150 (miR-150) plays a critical role in immune regulation and has been implicated in autoimmune diseases like Multiple Sclerosis (MS). This review aims to evaluate miR-150's potential as a biomarker for MS, necessitating this review to consolidate current evidence and highlight miR-150's utility in improving diagnostic accuracy and monitoring disease progression.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature search was conducted in databases like PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, SciSpace, MDPI and Web of Science, adhering to PRISMA guidelines. Studies focusing on miR-150 implications in MS were included. Data extraction was conducted, while quality assessment was done using the NOS and AMSTAR 2 tools. With the extracted data a statistical analyses conducted.

RESULTS

10 eligible articles were included in review. Findings show that miR-150 levels were consistently deregulated in MS patients compared to healthy controls, correlating with disease severity and clinical parameters such as (EDSS) scores and disease activity. Additionally, miR-150 is implicated in the inflammatory pathogenesis of MS, affecting immune cell regulation and inflammatory pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

MiR-150 is a promising biomarker for MS, showing significant potential for improving diagnostic accuracy and monitoring disease progression. Its consistent deregulation in MS patients and correlation with clinical parameters underscore its clinical utility. Further research should validate miR-150's salivary presence and its possible usage as a novel biomarker and therapeutic potential in the development of MS.

Multiple sclerosis disease activity, a multi-biomarker score of disease activity and response to treatment in multiple sclerosis

Regular assessment of disease activity in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) is required to optimize clinical outcomes. Biomarkers can be a valuable tool for measuring disease activity in multiple sclerosis (MS) if they reflect the pathological processes underlying MS pathogenicity. In this pilot study, we combined multiple biomarkers previously analyzed in RRMS patients into an MS disease activity (MSDA) score to evaluate their ability to predict relapses and treatment response to glatiramer acetate (GA). Response Gene to Complement 32 (RGC-32), FasL, IL-21, SIRT1, phosphorylated SIRT1 (p-SIRT1), and JNK1 p54 levels were used to generate cut-off values for each biomarker. Any value below the cutoff for RGC-32, FasL SIRT1, or p-SIRT1 or above the cutoff for IL-21 or JNK1 p54 was given a +1 value, indicating relapse or lack of response to GA. Any value above the cutoff value for RGC-32, FasL, SIRT1, p-SIRT1 or below that for IL-21 or JNK1 p54 was given a -1 value, indicating clinical stability or response to GA. An MSDA score above +1 indicated a relapse or lack of response to treatment. An MSDA score below -1 indicated clinical stability or response to treatment. Our results showed that the MSDA scores generated using either four or six biomarkers had a higher sensitivity and specificity and significantly correlated with the expanded disability status scale. Although these results suggest that the MSDA test can be useful for monitoring therapeutic response to biologic agents and assessing clinically challenging situations, the present findings need to be confirmed in larger studies.

MicroRNAs targeting TGF-β signaling exacerbate central nervous system autoimmunity by disrupting regulatory T cell development and function

Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) signaling is essential for a balanced immune response by mediating the development and function of regulatory T cells (Tregs) and suppressing autoreactive T cells. Disruption of this balance can result in autoimmune diseases, including multiple sclerosis (MS). MicroRNAs (miRNAs) targeting TGF-β signaling have been shown to be upregulated in naïve CD4 T cells in MS patients, resulting in a limited in vitro generation of human Tregs. Utilizing the murine model experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, we show that perinatal administration of miRNAs, which target the TGF-β signaling pathway, enhanced susceptibility to central nervous system (CNS) autoimmunity. Neonatal mice administered with these miRNAs further exhibited reduced Treg frequencies with a loss in T cell receptor repertoire diversity following the induction of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in adulthood. Exacerbated CNS autoimmunity as a result of miRNA overexpression in CD4 T cells was accompanied by enhanced Th1 and Th17 cell frequencies. These findings demonstrate that increased levels of TGF-β-associated miRNAs impede the development of a diverse Treg population, leading to enhanced effector cell activity, and contributing to an increased susceptibility to CNS autoimmunity. Thus, TGF-β-targeting miRNAs could be a risk factor for MS, and recovering optimal TGF-β signaling may restore immune homeostasis in MS patients.

MicroRNA biomarkers as next-generation diagnostic tools for neurodegenerative diseases: a comprehensive review

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) are characterized by abnormalities within neurons of the brain or spinal cord that gradually lose function, eventually leading to cell death. Upon examination of affected tissue, pathological changes reveal a loss of synapses, misfolded proteins, and activation of immune cells-all indicative of disease progression-before severe clinical symptoms become apparent. Early detection of NDs is crucial for potentially administering targeted medications that may delay disease advancement. Given their complex pathophysiological features and diverse clinical symptoms, there is a pressing need for sensitive and effective diagnostic methods for NDs. Biomarkers such as microRNAs (miRNAs) have been identified as potential tools for detecting these diseases. We explore the pivotal role of miRNAs in the context of NDs, focusing on Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Multiple sclerosis, Huntington's disease, and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis. The review delves into the intricate relationship between aging and NDs, highlighting structural and functional alterations in the aging brain and their implications for disease development. It elucidates how miRNAs and RNA-binding proteins are implicated in the pathogenesis of NDs and underscores the importance of investigating their expression and function in aging. Significantly, miRNAs exert substantial influence on post-translational modifications (PTMs), impacting not just the nervous system but a wide array of tissues and cell types as well. Specific miRNAs have been found to target proteins involved in ubiquitination or de-ubiquitination processes, which play a significant role in regulating protein function and stability. We discuss the link between miRNA, PTM, and NDs. Additionally, the review discusses the significance of miRNAs as biomarkers for early disease detection, offering insights into diagnostic strategies.

The fluctuations of expression profiles of critical genes in the miRNA maturation process and pro-and anti-inflammatory cytokines in the pathogenesis and progression of multiple sclerosis

BACKGROUND

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a central nervous system disease known for immune-mediated demyelination, inflammatory, and neurodegeneration symptoms. Discovering molecular biomarkers to classify RRMS and SPMS patients, monitor the disease activity, and response to particular treatments is one area that has received notable attraction. MicroRNA (miRNA), a single-stranded non-coding RNA molecule, is a significant regulator of gene expression recruited in pathogenic mechanisms in diverse diseases, especially cancer and MS. Also, the relapsing-remitting features of MS exhibit that both inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines are effective in the progression of the disease over time.

METHODS AND RESULTS

It was assessed the expression patterns of the genes (Drosha, Pasha (DGCR8), and Dicer ) encoding the critical enzymes in the processing steps of miRNA maturation and major pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IFN-α, IFN-β, and IL-6) in blood cells of 40 MS patients (two groups of 10 men and women in both clinical courses of RR and SPMS patients) in comparison with 20 healthy control group (10 males and 10 females). The highest transcription activity of Drosha was observed for RRMS patients (4.2 and 3.6-fold, respectively), and the expression ratio was down regulated in male and female patients with SPMS (3.9- and 3.1-fold, respectively). Considering the studied cytokines, the increase in expression ratio of IL-6 in SPMS patients and the decrease in transcript abundance of INF-α, and INF-β cytokines are consistent with the progression of the disease.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings showed that the high and low transcriptional levels of the considered genes seem to be effective in the pathogenesis and progression of MS.

Effect of rs1058240 polymorphism in 3'-UTR of GATA3 gene on potential binding of miRNAs and its association with RRMS risk: bioinformatics analysis and case-control study

AIM

Multiple sclerosis is believed to be an autoimmune disease that is influenced by T helper (Th) cell differentiation. GATA3 plays an important role in reducing the development and severity of MS by shifting the differentiation of Th cells to Th2 and regulatory T cells while inhibiting the differentiation of Th1 and Th17 cells. Considering the functional role of rs1058240 SNP in the 3'-UTR of GATA3 mRNA, the association of target SNP with the risk of RRMS was examined.

METHODS

Genomic DNA was extracted from whole blood samples of 200 RRMS patients and 226 healthy individuals as a control group. Different genotypes of rs1058240 SNP were determined using the RFLP-PCR technique. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS software and χ2 and logistic regression tests. The stability of GATA3 mRNA secondary structures and the binding patterns of GATA3-miRNAs with different alleles were evaluated using RNAfold and RNAhybrid programs, respectively.

RESULTS

The results indicated that the GATA3 rs1058240 G allele (p value = 0.010, OR = 1.45, CI = 1.09-1.93) and GG genotype (adjusted p value = 0.017, OR = 2.27, 95%CI = 1.16-4.44) increased the risk of RRMS, particularly in women (adjusted p value = 0.006, OR = 2.99, 95%CI = 1.37-6.52). Bioinformatics analysis revealed that although the allelic variation of this polymorphism had only a slight effect on mRNA stability (-177 to -177.20), the G allele significantly increased miRNA binding strength and miRNA-mRNA thermodynamic stability for hsa-miR-337-5p, hsa-miR-4445-3p, hsa-miR-4485-3p, hsa-miR-95-3p (ΔMFE > 0) compared to the A allele.

CONCLUSION

The G allele and GG genotype of rs1058240 in GATA3 mRNA 3'-UTR were found to be risk factors for increasing the susceptibility to RRMS.

A Dual Therapy of Nanostructured Lipid Carrier Loaded with Teriflunomide-A Dihydro-Orotate Dehydrogenase Inhibitor and an miR-155-Antagomir in Cuprizone-Induced C57BL/6J Mouse

The effective treatment of central nervous system (CNS) disorders such as multiple sclerosis (MS) has been challenging due to the limited ability of therapeutic agents to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB). In this study, we investigated the potential of nanocarrier systems to deliver miR-155-antagomir-teriflunomide (TEF) dual therapy to the brain via intranasal (IN) administration to manage MS-associated neurodegeneration and demyelination. Our results showed that the combinatorial therapy of miR-155-antagomir and TEF loaded in nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) significantly increased brain concentration and improved targeting potential. The novelty of this study lies in the use of a combinatorial therapy approach of miR-155-antagomir and TEF loaded in NLCs. This is a significant finding, as the effective delivery of therapeutic molecules to the CNS has been a challenge in treating neurodegenerative disorders. Additionally, this study sheds light on the potential use of RNA-targeting therapies in personalized medicine, which could revolutionize the way CNS disorders are managed. Furthermore, our findings suggest that nanocarrier-loaded therapeutic agents have great potential for safe and economical delivery in treating CNS disorders. Our study provides novel insights into the effective delivery of therapeutic molecules via the IN route for managing neurodegenerative disorders. In particular, our results demonstrate the potential of delivering miRNA and TEF via the intranasal route using the NLC system. We also demonstrate that the long-term use of RNA-targeting therapies could be a promising tool in personalized medicine. Importantly, using a cuprizone-induced animal model, our study also investigated the effects of TEF-miR155-antagomir-loaded NLCs on demyelination and axonal damage. Following six weeks of treatment, the TEF-miR155-antagomir-loaded NLCs potentially lowered the demyelination and enhanced the bioavailability of the loaded therapeutic molecules. Our study is a paradigm shift in delivering miRNAs and TEF via the intranasal route and highlights the potential of this approach for managing neurodegenerative disorders. In conclusion, our study provides critical insights into the effective delivery of therapeutic molecules via the IN route for managing CNS disorders, and especially MS. Our findings have significant implications for the future development of nanocarrier-based therapies and personalized medicine. Our results provide a strong foundation for further studies and the potential to develop safe and economic therapeutics for CNS disorders.

Dietary Polyphenols, Microbiome, and Multiple Sclerosis: From Molecular Anti-Inflammatory and Neuroprotective Mechanisms to Clinical Evidence

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a multifactorial, immune-mediated disease caused by complex gene-environment interactions. Dietary factors modulating the inflammatory status through the control of the metabolic and inflammatory pathways and the composition of commensal gut microbiota, are among the main environmental factors involved in the pathogenesis of MS. There is no etiological therapy for MS and the drugs currently used, often accompanied by major side effects, are represented by immunomodulatory substances capable of modifying the course of the disease. For this reason, nowadays, more attention is paid to alternative therapies with natural substances with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, as adjuvants of classical therapies. Among natural substances with beneficial effects on human health, polyphenols are assuming an increasing interest due to their powerful antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective effects. Beneficial properties of polyphenols on the CNS are achieved through direct effects depending on their ability to cross the blood-brain barrier and indirect effects exerted in part via interaction with the microbiota. The aim of this review is to examine the literature about the molecular mechanism underlying the protective effects of polyphenols in MS achieved by experiments conducted in vitro and in animal models of the disease. Significant data have been accumulated for resveratrol, curcumin, luteolin, quercetin, and hydroxytyrosol, and therefore we will focus on the results obtained with these polyphenols. Clinical evidence for the use of polyphenols as adjuvant therapy in MS is restricted to a smaller number of substances, mainly curcumin and epigallocatechin gallate. In the last part of the review, a clinical trial studying the effects of these polyphenols in MS patients will also be revised.

Autoreactive lymphocytes in multiple sclerosis: Pathogenesis and treatment target

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS) characterized by destruction of the myelin sheath structure. The loss of myelin leads to damage of a neuron’s axon and cell body, which is identified as brain lesions on magnetic resonance image (MRI). The pathogenesis of MS remains largely unknown. However, immune mechanisms, especially those linked to the aberrant lymphocyte activity, are mainly responsible for neuronal damage. Th1 and Th17 populations of lymphocytes were primarily associated with MS pathogenesis. These lymphocytes are essential for differentiation of encephalitogenic CD8⁺ T cell and Th17 lymphocyte crossing the blood brain barrier and targeting myelin sheath in the CNS. B-lymphocytes could also contribute to MS pathogenesis by producing anti-myelin basic protein antibodies. In later studies, aberrant function of Treg and Th9 cells was identified as contributing to MS. This review summarizes the aberrant function and count of lymphocyte, and the contributions of these cell to the mechanisms of MS. Additionally, we have outlined the novel MS therapeutics aimed to amend the aberrant function or counts of these lymphocytes.