Structural Elucidation, Modification, and Structure-Activity Relationship of Polysaccharides in Chinese Herbs: A Review

Intervention effects of low-molecular-weight chondroitin sulfate from the nasal cartilage of yellow cattle on lipopolysaccharide-induced behavioral disorders: regulation of the microbiome-gut-brain axis

Chondroitin sulfate (CS) is a sulfated linear polysaccharide with different functional activities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, lipid-lowering, and immune regulation. As natural sulfated polysaccharides have high molecular weight, high apparent viscosity, low water solubility, complex structure, and high negative charge, they have difficulty binding to receptors within cells across tissue barriers, resulting in low bioavailability and unclear structure-activity relationships. In this study, an H2O2-Vc oxidative degradation system was employed to perform environmentally friendly and controllable degradation of CS extracted from the nasal cartilage of Shaanxi Yellow cattle. Two low-molecular-weight chondroitin sulfates (LMWCSs), CS-1 (14.8 kDa) and CS-2 (50.9 kDa), that exhibit strong in vitro free radical scavenging ability were obtained, and their structures were characterized. Mice intraperitoneally administered lipopolysaccharide (LPS) were used to explore the cognitive intervention effects of LMWCS. Supplementing CS-1 and CS-2 significantly downregulated the levels of the serum inflammatory factors, TNF-α and IL-1β, promoted the expression of GSH in the brain, and inhibited the production of the lipid peroxidation product, malondialdehyde (MDA), ultimately inhibiting LPS-induced cognitive impairment in mice. Surprisingly, compared to the LPS model group, the abundances of Streptococcus, Eisenbergiella, Vampirovibrio, Coprococcus, Enterococcus and Lachnoanaerobaculum were significantly increased in the intestines of mice in the CS-1 and CS-2 group, whereas those of Parabacteroides and Mycoplasma were significantly decreased. Altogether, this study provides a theoretical basis for the comprehensive utilization of agricultural and animal resources and the application of brain nutrition, anti-inflammatory, and LMWCS health products.

Ethnobotanical Uses and Pharmacological Activities of Moroccan Ephedra Species

Ephedra species are among the most popular herbs used in traditional medicine for a long time. The ancient Chinese medical book "Treatise on Febrile Diseases" refers to the classic traditional Chinese medicine prescription Ge Gen decoction, which consists of seven herbs, including an Ephedra species. Ephedra species are utilized all over the world to treat symptoms of the common cold and coughs, and to combat major human diseases, such as asthma, cancers, diabetes, cardiovascular and digestive disorders, and microbial infections. This study aimed at identifying specific Ephedra species used traditionally in Morocco for therapeutic purposes. The plant parts, their preparation process, and the treated pathologies were identified and analyzed. The results revealed five ethnobotanically important species of Ephedra: Ephedra alata Decne, Ephedra altissima Desf., Ephedra distachya L., Ephedra fragilis Desf., and Ephedra nebrodensis Tineo. These species are used traditionally in Morocco for treating people with diabetes, cancer, rheumatism, cold and asthma, hypertension, influenza virus infection, and respiratory ailments. In addition, they are occasionally used as calefacient agents, to regulate weight, or for capillary care. Few studies have underlined the antibacterial and antioxidant activities of some of these Moroccan Ephedra species, but little information is available regarding the natural products at the origin of the bioactivities. Further phytochemical investigations and clinical data are encouraged to better support the use of these plants.

Potential therapeutic target for polysaccharide inhibition of colon cancer progression

In recent years, colon cancer has become one of the most common malignant tumors worldwide, posing a great threat to human health. Studies have shown that natural polysaccharides have rich biological activities and medicinal value, such as anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-oxidation, and immune-enhancing effects, especially with potential anti-colon cancer mechanisms. Natural polysaccharides can not only protect and enhance the homeostasis of the intestinal environment but also exert a direct inhibition effect on cancer cells, making it a promising strategy for treating colon cancer. Preliminary clinical experiments have demonstrated that oral administration of low and high doses of citrus pectin polysaccharides can reduce tumor volume in mice by 38% (p < 0.02) and 70% (p < 0.001), respectively. These results are encouraging. However, there are relatively few clinical studies on the effectiveness of polysaccharide therapy for colon cancer, and ensuring the effective bioavailability of polysaccharides in the body remains a challenge. In this article, we elucidate the impact of the physicochemical factors of polysaccharides on their anticancer effects and then reveal the anti-tumor effects and mechanisms of natural polysaccharides on colon cancer. Finally, we emphasize the challenges of using polysaccharides in the treatment of colon cancer and discuss future applications.

Protective Effects and Mechanism of Polysaccharides from Edible Medicinal Plants in Alcoholic Liver Injury: A Review

Alcohol use accounts for a large variety of diseases, among which alcoholic liver injury (ALI) poses a serious threat to human health. In order to overcome the limitations of chemotherapeutic agents, some natural constituents, especially polysaccharides from edible medicinal plants (PEMPs), have been applied for the prevention and treatment of ALI. In this review, the protective effects of PEMPs on acute, subacute, subchronic, and chronic ALI are summarized. The pathogenesis of alcoholic liver injury is analyzed. The structure-activity relationship (SAR) and safety of PEMPs are discussed. In addition, the mechanism underlying the hepatoprotective activity of polysaccharides from edible medicinal plants is explored. PEMPs with hepatoprotective activities mainly belong to the families Orchidaceae, Solanaceae, and Liliaceae. The possible mechanisms of PEMPs include activating enzymes related to alcohol metabolism, attenuating damage from oxidative stress, regulating cytokines, inhibiting the apoptosis of hepatocytes, improving mitochondrial function, and regulating the gut microbiota. Strategies for further research into the practical application of PEMPs for ALI are proposed. Future studies on the mechanism of action of PEMPs will need to focus more on the utilization of multi-omics approaches, such as proteomics, epigenomics, and lipidomics.

Relationship among Chinese herb polysaccharide (CHP), gut microbiota, and chronic diarrhea and impact of CHP on chronic diarrhea

Chronic diarrhea, including diarrhea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome (IBS-D), osmotic diarrhea, bile acid diarrhea, and antibiotic-associated diarrhea, is a common problem which is highly associated with disorders of the gut microbiota composition such as small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO) and so on. A growing number of studies have supported the view that Chinese herbal formula alleviates the symptoms of diarrhea by modulating the fecal microbiota. Chinese herbal polysaccharides (CHPs) are natural polymers composed of monosaccharides that are widely found in Chinese herbs and function as important active ingredients. Commensal gut microbiota has an extensive capacity to utilize CHPs and play a vital role in degrading polysaccharides into short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). Many CHPs, as prebiotics, have an antidiarrheal role to promote the growth of beneficial bacteria and inhibit the colonization of pathogenic bacteria. This review systematically summarizes the relationship among gut microbiota, chronic diarrhea, and CHPs as well as recent progress on the impacts of CHPs on the gut microbiota and recent advances on the possible role of CHPs in chronic diarrhea.

Inonotus obliquus polysaccharide are linear molecules that alter the abundance and composition of intestinal microbiota in Sprague Dawley rats

Introduction

The macromolecular polysaccharide Inonotus obliquus polysaccharide (IOP) is composed of various monosaccharides, and it could modulate the composition and diversity of intestinal flora. However, its impact on the intestinal flora in rats of different genders remains unclear. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the structural changes of IOP and its effects on the intestinal flora after administration in male and female rats.

Methods

In this study, the molecular weight and purity of IOP were analyzed by high-performance gel permeation chromatography (HPGPC) and phenol sulfuric acid method, and NMR was used to confirm the chemical structure of IOP. Sex hormone [testosterone (T) and estradiol (E2)] levels and intestinal microbial changes were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and 16S rRNA, respectively, after gavage of IOP (100 mg/kg) in male and female Sprague Dawley (SD) rats.

Results

HPGPC analysis showed that the average molecular weight (Mw) of IOP was 4,828  Da, and the total sugar content of the purified IOP was 96.2%, indicating that the polysaccharide is of high purity. NMR revealed that IOP is a linear macromolecule with an α-D-type glucose backbone. The results of ELISA and 16S rRNA showed that the IOP increased the abundance of beneficial bacteria, such as Clostridia_UCG-014 and Prevotellaceae_NK3B31, and reduced that of harmful bacteria, such as Colidextribacter and Desulfobacterota in the intestine of both male and female rats, and IOP changed the levels of sex hormones in male and female rats. Further analyses revealed that the increase in alpha diversity was higher in male than female rats. α diversity and β diversity revealed a significant difference in the composition of cecal microbiota between male and female rats in the control group, but IOP intake reduced this difference. Meanwhile, α analysis revealed a change in the composition of bacterial flora was more stable in male than female rats.

Conclusions

This study enhances our comprehension of the IOP structure and elucidates the alterations in intestinal flora following IOP administration in rats of varying genders. Nonetheless, further investigation is warranted to explore the specific underlying reasons for these discrepancies.

Structural Characterization and Immunobiological Activity of Polysaccharides from Astragalus Oyster Mushroom

When added to mushroom growing substrates, edible and medicinal herbs affect the mushrooms' nutritional and medicinal value. In this study, polysaccharides (P⁰OP-I and P¹⁵OP-I) were extracted and purified from oyster mushrooms grown on substrates supplemented with 0% and 15% Astragalus roots (P⁰ and P¹⁵), respectively, and their chemical structure and immunobiological activities were compared. P¹⁵OP-I and P⁰OP-I were extracted using ultrasound-assisted hot water and deproteinized with the Sevage method, depigmented with 30% H₂O₂, desalted with dialysis, and purified using DEAE-52 cellulose and Sephadex G-100 dextran column chromatography. The molecular weight of P⁰OP-I and P¹⁵OP-I was 21,706.96 and 20,172.65 Da, respectively. Both were composed of monosaccharides D-mannose, galacturonic acid, D-glucose, D-galactose, and L-arabinose but in different molar ratios, and both were connected by a pyranoside linkage. P¹⁵OP-I consisted of higher contents of mannose, glucose, galactose and arabinose and lower content of galacturonic acid as compared to P⁰OP-I. Both P⁰OP-I and P¹⁵OP-I induced NO and TNF-α production but did not show cytotoxic effect or induce ROS generation in RAW264.7 cells. P¹⁵OP-I showed a stronger ability to promote NO and TNF-α production relative to P⁰OP-I. In vitro experiments showed that the immunomodulatory activity of P⁰OP-I and P¹⁵OP-I in RAW264.7 macrophages were mediated by the JNK/MAPK, Erk/MAPK, and NF-κB signaling pathways. The results would be helpful for elucidation of the health promoting mechanism of Astragalus oyster mushrooms as a source of neutraceuticals.

Extraction, Purification, Structural Characteristics, Health Benefits, and Application of the Polysaccharides from Lonicera japonica Thunb.: A Review

Lonicera japonica Thunb. is a widely distributed plant with ornamental, economic, edible, and medicinal values. L. japonica is a phytoantibiotic with broad-spectrum antibacterial activity and a potent therapeutic effect on various infectious diseases. The anti-diabetic, anti-Alzheimer's disease, anti-depression, antioxidative, immunoregulatory, anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, anti-gout, and anti-alcohol-addiction effects of L. japonica can also be explained by bioactive polysaccharides isolated from this plant. Several researchers have determined the molecular weight, chemical structure, and monosaccharide composition and ratio of L. japonica polysaccharides by water extraction and alcohol precipitation, enzyme-assisted extraction (EAE) and chromatography. This article searched in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia, Flora of China, Web of Science, PubMed, and CNKI databases within the last 12 years, using "Lonicera. japonica polysaccharides", "Lonicera. japonica Thunb. polysaccharides", and "Honeysuckle polysaccharides" as the key word, systematically reviewed the extraction and purification methods, structural characteristics, structure-activity relationship, and health benefits of L. japonica polysaccharides to provide insights for future studies. Further, we elaborated on the potential applications of L. japonica polysaccharides in the food, medicine, and daily chemical industry, such as using L. japonica as raw material to make lozenges, soy sauce and toothpaste, etc. This review will be a useful reference for the further optimization of functional products developed from L. japonica polysaccharides.

Structural characterization and biological activities of polysaccharide iron complex synthesized by plant polysaccharides: A review

Iron deficiency anemia can lead to a variety of functional disorders, which is one of the highest incidence of nutrient deficiency diseases. The direct addition of iron to food will not only brings difficulties to the production of products, but also brings damages to human body. In recent years, international studies have shown that polysaccharide iron complex (PIC) not only has a variety of pharmacological activities of polysaccharide itself, but also has the function of supplementing iron, so it is a good iron supplement. With the advantages of good solubility, high iron content, low gastrointestinal irritation and high bioavailability, PIC is an effective iron supplement for iron deficiency anemia and has attracted more and more attention. In this paper, the different preparation methods, structural characterization, biological activities and clinical applications of PIC synthesized by natural polysaccharides from plant were reviewed, in order to provide theoretical basis for the development and application of PIC.

An Acidic Polysaccharide with Anti-Inflammatory Effects from Blackened Jujube: Conformation and Rheological Properties

An acidic polysaccharide fraction (BJP-4) was isolated from blackened jujube, and its advanced structures and anti-inflammatory activity were investigated. X-ray diffraction showed that BJP-4 exhibits both crystalline and amorphous portions. Atomic force microscopy data suggested that it contains a large number of spherical lumps. Circular dichroism and Congo red experiments revealed that it has no triple-helix conformation. In steady shear flow results, the BJP-4 solution was a pseudoplastic non-Newtonian fluid with acid-base stability. BJP-4 (20 mg/mL) showed liquid-like properties (G″ > G′), while it performed weak gel-like behavior at a high concentration (40 mg/mL) (G′ > G″). The anti-inflammatory effects of BJP-4 were further evaluated through in vitro experiments. BJP-4 could down-regulate the over-secretion of inflammatory factors (NO, IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α, iNOS and COX-2) in RAW264.7 cells due to LPS stimulation. Moreover, it demonstrated that BJP-4 restrained the NF-κB signal pathway by regulating TLR4 expression, reducing IκBα phosphorylation level and NF-κB p65 nuclear translocation. In summary, this present study contributes to the application of blackened jujube polysaccharides in the foods and medicine field.