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Stone TW, Darlington LG, Badawy AAB, Williams RO. The Complex World of Kynurenic Acid: Reflections on Biological Issues and Therapeutic Strategy. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:9040. [PMID: 39201726 PMCID: PMC11354734 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25169040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2024] [Revised: 08/13/2024] [Accepted: 08/14/2024] [Indexed: 09/03/2024] Open
Abstract
It has been unequivocally established that kynurenic acid has a number of actions in a variety of cells and tissues, raising, in principle, the possibility of targeting its generation, metabolism or sites of action to manipulate those effects to a beneficial therapeutic end. However, many basic aspects of the biology of kynurenic acid remain unclear, potentially leading to some confusion and misinterpretations of data. They include questions of the source, generation, targets, enzyme expression, endogenous concentrations and sites of action. This essay is intended to raise and discuss many of these aspects as a source of reference for more balanced discussion. Those issues are followed by examples of situations in which modulating and correcting kynurenic acid production or activity could bring significant therapeutic benefit, including neurological and psychiatric conditions, inflammatory diseases and cell protection. More information is required to obtain a clear overall view of the pharmacological environment relevant to kynurenic acid, especially with respect to the active concentrations of kynurenine metabolites in vivo and changed levels in disease. The data and ideas presented here should permit a greater confidence in appreciating the sites of action and interaction of kynurenic acid under different local conditions and pathologies, enhancing our understanding of kynurenic acid itself and the many clinical conditions in which manipulating its pharmacology could be of clinical value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trevor W. Stone
- The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, NDORMS, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FY, UK;
| | - L. Gail Darlington
- Worthing Hospital, University Hospitals Sussex NHS Foundation Trust, Worthing BN11 2DH, UK
| | - Abdulla A.-B. Badawy
- Formerly School of Health Sciences, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff CF5 2YB, UK
| | - Richard O. Williams
- The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, NDORMS, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FY, UK;
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León X, Valero C, Fuster G, Bragado P, Camacho M, Avilés-Jurado FX. Predictive capacity for local disease control of neogenin-1 (NEO1) transcriptional expression in patients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Clin Transl Oncol 2024:10.1007/s12094-024-03535-z. [PMID: 38898351 DOI: 10.1007/s12094-024-03535-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE To analyze the predictive capacity for local disease control of the transcriptional expression of neogenin-1 (NEO1) gene in patients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). METHODS/PATIENTS A retrospective study was performed on tumor biopsies from 107 patients with HNSCC treated surgically. The transcriptional expression of NEO1 was determined by RT-PCR. NEO1 transcriptional expression value was categorized according to local disease control by recursive partitioning analysis. RESULTS Lower NEO1 transcriptional expression was associated with worse local control after surgical treatment. Patients with lower NEO1 expression (n = 25, 23.4%) had a 5-year local recurrence-free survival of 61.8% (95% CI: 42.1-81.5%), while patients with higher NEO1 expression (n = 82, 76.6%) had a 5-year local recurrence-free survival of 85.6% (95% CI: 77.6-93.6%), (P = 0.003). According to the result of multivariable analysis, patients with lower NEO1 expression had a 2.7-fold increased risk of local tumor recurrence (95% CI: 1.0-7.0, P = 0.043) compared to patients with higher NEO1 expression. CONCLUSIONS HNSCC patients with a lower transcriptional expression of NEO1 have a significantly higher risk of local recurrence after surgical treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xavier León
- Otorhinolaryngology Department, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, C/Mas Casanovas, 90, 08041, Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Madrid, Spain
- Facultad de Medicina, UVIC, Universitat Central de Catalunya, Vic, Spain
| | - Cristina Valero
- Otorhinolaryngology Department, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, C/Mas Casanovas, 90, 08041, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Gemma Fuster
- Department of Biomedicine and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, University of Barcelona (UB) and Institute of Biomedicine of the University of Barcelona (IBUB), Barcelona, Spain
- Biosciences Department, Sciences Technology and Engineering Faculty, Tissue Repair and Regeneration Group, UVIC, Vic, Spain
| | - Paloma Bragado
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Mercedes Camacho
- Genomics of Complex Diseases, Research Institute Hospital Sant Pau, IIB Sant Pau, Barcelona, Spain
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Stone TW, Williams RO. Interactions of IDO and the Kynurenine Pathway with Cell Transduction Systems and Metabolism at the Inflammation-Cancer Interface. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:cancers15112895. [PMID: 37296860 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15112895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Revised: 05/10/2023] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The mechanisms underlying a relationship between inflammation and cancer are unclear, but much emphasis has been placed on the role of tryptophan metabolism to kynurenine and downstream metabolites, as these make a substantial contribution to the regulation of immune tolerance and susceptibility to cancer. The proposed link is supported by the induction of tryptophan metabolism by indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) or tryptophan-2,3-dioxygenase (TDO), in response to injury, infection or stress. This review will summarize the kynurenine pathway and will then focus on the bi-directional interactions with other transduction pathways and cancer-related factors. The kynurenine pathway can interact with and modify activity in many other transduction systems, potentially generating an extended web of effects other than the direct effects of kynurenine and its metabolites. Conversely, the pharmacological targeting of those other systems could greatly enhance the efficacy of changes in the kynurenine pathway. Indeed, manipulating those interacting pathways could affect inflammatory status and tumor development indirectly via the kynurenine pathway, while pharmacological modulation of the kynurenine pathway could indirectly influence anti-cancer protection. While current efforts are progressing to account for the failure of selective IDO1 inhibitors to inhibit tumor growth and to devise means of circumventing the issue, it is clear that there are wider factors involving the relationship between kynurenines and cancer that merit detailed consideration as alternative drug targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trevor W Stone
- The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, NDORMS, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FY, UK
| | - Richard O Williams
- The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, NDORMS, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FY, UK
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Chaudhari S, Yazdizadeh Shotorbani P, Tao Y, Kasetti R, Zode G, Mathis KW, Ma R. Neogenin pathway positively regulates fibronectin production by glomerular mesangial cells. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2022; 323:C226-C235. [PMID: 35704698 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00359.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Neogenin, a transmembrane receptor, was recently found in kidney cells and immune cells. However, the function of neogenin signaling in kidney is not clear. Mesangial cells (MCs) are a major source of extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins in glomerulus. In many kidney diseases, MCs are impaired and manifest myofibroblast phenotype. Over production of ECM by the injured MCs promotes renal injury and accelerates the progression of kidney diseases. The present study was aimed to determine if neogenin receptor was expressed in MCs and if the receptor signaling regulated ECM protein production by MCs. We showed that neogenin was expressed in the glomerular MCs. Deletion of neogenin using CRISPR/Cas9 lentivirus system, significantly reduced the abundance of fibronectin, an ECM protein. Netrin-1, a ligand for neogenin, also significantly decreased fibronectin production by MCs and decreased neogenin protein expression in MCs. Furthermore, treatment of human MCs with high glucose (25 mM) significantly increased the protein abundance of neogenin as early as 8 h. Consistently, neogenin expression in glomerulus significantly increased in the eNOS-/- db/db diabetic mice starting as early as the age of 8 weeks and this increase sustained at least to the age of 24 weeks. We further found that the HG induced increase in neogenin abundance was blunted by antioxidant PEG-catalase and N-acetyl cysteine. Taken together, our results suggest a new mechanism of regulation of fibronectin production by MCs. This previously unrecognized neogenin-fibronectin pathway may contribute to glomerular injury responses during the course of diabetic nephropathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarika Chaudhari
- Dept. of Physiology and Anatomy, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, United States
| | | | - Yu Tao
- Dept. of Physiology and Anatomy, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, United States
| | - Ramesh Kasetti
- The North Texas Eye Research Institute and Dept. of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, United States
| | - Gulab Zode
- The North Texas Eye Research Institute and Dept. of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, United States
| | - Keisa W Mathis
- Dept. of Physiology and Anatomy, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, United States
| | - Rong Ma
- Dept. of Physiology and Anatomy, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, United States
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Zalyte E, Cicenas J. Starvation mediates pancreatic cancer cell sensitivity to ferroptosis via ERK1/2, JNK and changes in the cell mesenchymal state. Int J Mol Med 2022; 49:84. [PMID: 35514314 PMCID: PMC9106375 DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2022.5140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Pancreatic cancer is a highly metastatic and therapy‑resistant disease. In the present study, the prospects of a novel approach to kill pancreatic cancer cells were examined: Starvation combined with ferroptosis induction. Established pancreatic cancer cell lines (Miapaca2, Panc‑1, Su.86.86 and T3M4), as well as a unique cell line, Capan‑26, which was originally derived in the authors' laboratory, were used. Cells were deprived from growth factors, amino acids and pseudo‑starved using treatment with mTOR inhibitors; erastin was used to induce ferroptosis. Cell viability and lipid peroxidation measurements using flow cytometry revealed that the starved pancreatic cancer cells reacted differently to ferroptosis induction: The Panc‑1, Su.86.86 and T3M4 cells gained sensitivity, while the Miapaca2 cells acquired resistance. Fluorescence microscopy revealed that ERK1/2 translocated to the nucleus of the starved pancreatic cancer cells. Moreover, ERK1/2 pharmacological inhibition with SCH772984 prevented erastin‑induced ferroptosis in the starved Panc‑1, Su.86.86 and T3M4 cells. Confocal microscopy also indicated JNK activation. However, the inhibition of this kinase revealed its unexpected role in oxidative stress management: Treatment with the JNK inhibitor, SP600125, increased the viability of pseudo‑starved cells following erastin treatment. In addition, the FBS‑starved Miapaca2 and Capan‑26 cells transitioned between epithelial and mesenchymal cell states. The results were further confirmed using wound healing assays, western blot analysis and microscopic analysis of epithelial‑to‑mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers. Mesenchymal properties were associated with a higher sensitivity to erastin, whereas epithelial‑like cells were more resistant. Finally, it was demonstrated that compounds targeting EMT‑related signaling pathways increased cell sensitivity to erastin. On the whole, these results confirm that in starved pancreatic cancer cells, ERK1/2 and JNK signaling, as well as switching between epithelial and mesenchymal states mediates sensitivity to erastin and reveal novel therapeutic prospects of the combination of starvation with ferroptosis induction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Egle Zalyte
- Proteomics Centre, Institute of Biochemistry, Vilnius University Life Sciences Centre, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania
- Institute of Biosciences, Vilnius University Life Sciences Centre, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Jonas Cicenas
- Proteomics Centre, Institute of Biochemistry, Vilnius University Life Sciences Centre, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania
- MAP Kinase Resource, Bioinformatics, CH-3027 Bern, Switzerland
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Clanchy FIL, Huang YS, Ogbechi J, Darlington LG, Williams RO, Stone TW. Induction of IDO1 and Kynurenine by Serine Proteases Subtilisin, Prostate Specific Antigen, CD26 and HtrA: A New Form of Immunosuppression? Front Immunol 2022; 13:832989. [PMID: 35371018 PMCID: PMC8964980 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.832989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Several serine proteases have been linked to autoimmune disorders and tumour initiation although the mechanisms are not fully understood. Activation of the kynurenine pathway enzyme indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO1) modulates cellular activity in the brain, tolerogenesis in the immune system and is a major checkpoint in cancer development. We now report that IDO1 mRNA and IDO1 protein expression (generating kynurenine) are induced in human monocyte-derived macrophages by several chymotryptic serine proteases with direct links to tumorigenesis, including Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA), CD26 (Dipeptidyl-peptidase-4, CD26/DPP-4), High Temperature Requirement protein-A (HtrA), and the bacterial virulence factor subtilisin. These proteases also induce expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokine genes IL1B and IL6. Other serine proteases tested: bacterial glu-C endopeptidase and mammalian Pro-protein Convertase Subtilase-Kexin-3 (PCSK3, furin), urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA), cathepsin G or neutrophil elastase, did not induce IDO1, indicating that the reported effects are not a general property of all serine proteases. The results represent a novel mechanism of activating immunosuppressive IDO1 and inducing kynurenine generation which, together with the production of inflammatory cytokines, would contribute to tumour initiation and progression, providing a new target for drug development. In addition, the proteasomal S20 serine protease inhibitor carfilzomib, used in the treatment of myeloma, prevented the induction of IDO1 and cytokine gene expression, potentially contributing to its clinical anti-cancer activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix I. L. Clanchy
- The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences (NDORMS), University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
- Botnar Research Centre, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Yi-Shu Huang
- The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences (NDORMS), University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Joy Ogbechi
- The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences (NDORMS), University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - L. Gail Darlington
- Department of Medicine and Rheumatology, Ashtead Hospital, Ashtead, United Kingdom
| | - Richard O. Williams
- The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences (NDORMS), University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Trevor W. Stone
- The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences (NDORMS), University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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Fu Y, Liu L, Li X, Chen H, Wang Z, Yang W, Zhang H, Zhang H. Peptide modified manganese-doped iron oxide nanoparticles as a sensitive fluorescence nanosensor for non-invasive detection of trypsin activity in vitro and in vivo. RSC Adv 2021; 11:2213-2220. [PMID: 35424166 PMCID: PMC8693661 DOI: 10.1039/d0ra08171j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Herein, a fluorescence turn-on nanosensor (MnIO@pep-FITC) has been proposed for detecting trypsin activity in vitro and in vivo through covalently immobilizing an FITC modified peptide substrate of trypsin (pep-FITC) on manganese-doped iron oxide nanoparticle (MnIO NP) surfaces via a polyethylene glycol (PEG) crosslinker. The conjugation of pep-FITC with MnIO NPs results in the quenching of FITC fluorescence. After trypsin cleavage, the FITC moiety is released from the MnIO NP surface, leading to a remarkable recovery of FITC fluorescence signal. Under the optimum experimental conditions, the recovery ratio of FITC fluorescence intensity is linearly dependent on the trypsin concentration in the range of 2 to 100 ng mL-1 in buffer and intracellular trypsin in the lysate of 5 × 102 to 1 × 104 HCT116 cells per mL, respectively. The detection limit of trypsin is 0.6 ng mL-1 in buffer or 359 cells per mL HCT116 cell lysate. The MnIO@pep-FITC is successfully employed to noninvasively monitor trypsin activity in the ultrasmall (ca. 4.9 mm3 in volume) BALB/c nude mouse-bearing HCT116 tumor by in vivo fluorescence imaging with external magnetic field assistance, demonstrating that it has excellent practicability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Fu
- College of Chemistry, Jilin University Changchun 130021 P. R. China
- Department of Radiology, The First Hospital of Jilin University Changchun 130021 P. R. China
| | - Lin Liu
- College of Chemistry, Jilin University Changchun 130021 P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Electroanalytical Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences Changchun 130022 P. R. China +86-431-85262243 +86-431-85262757
| | - Xiaodong Li
- Department of Radiology, The First Hospital of Jilin University Changchun 130021 P. R. China
| | - Hongda Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Electroanalytical Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences Changchun 130022 P. R. China +86-431-85262243 +86-431-85262757
| | - Zhenxin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Electroanalytical Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences Changchun 130022 P. R. China +86-431-85262243 +86-431-85262757
| | - Wensheng Yang
- College of Chemistry, Jilin University Changchun 130021 P. R. China
| | - Hua Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Electroanalytical Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences Changchun 130022 P. R. China +86-431-85262243 +86-431-85262757
| | - Huimao Zhang
- Department of Radiology, The First Hospital of Jilin University Changchun 130021 P. R. China
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Identification of NEO1 as a prognostic biomarker and its effects on the progression of colorectal cancer. Cancer Cell Int 2020; 20:510. [PMID: 33088218 PMCID: PMC7568410 DOI: 10.1186/s12935-020-01604-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 10/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Due to the high morbidity and poor clinical outcomes, early predictive and prognostic biomarker identification is desiderated in colorectal cancer (CRC). As a homologue of the Deleted in Colorectal Cancer (DCC) gene, the role of Neogenin-1 (NEO1) in CRC remained unveiled. This study was designed to probe into the effects and potential function of NEO1 in CRC. Methods Online databases, Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA), quantitative real-time PCR and western blotting were used to evaluate NEO1 expression in colorectal cancer tissues. Survival analysis was performed to predict the prognosis of CRC patients based on NEO1 expression level. Then, cell proliferation was detected by colony formation and Cell Counting Kit 8 (CCK-8) assays. CRC cell migration and invasion were examined by transwell assays. Finally, we utilized the Gene Set Variation Analysis (GSVA) and GSEA to dig the potential mechanisms of NEO1 in CRC. Results Oncomine database and The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database showed that NEO1 was down-regulated in CRC. Further results validated that NEO1 mRNA and protein expression were both significantly lower in CRC tumor tissues than in the adjacent tissues in our clinical samples. NEO1 expression was decreased with the progression of CRC. Survival and other clinical characteristic analyses exhibited that low NEO1 expression was related with poor prognosis. A gain-of-function study showed that overexpression of NEO1 restrained proliferation, migration and invasion of CRC cells while a loss-of-function showed the opposite effects. Finally, functional pathway enrichment analysis revealed that NEO1 low expression samples were enriched in inflammation-related signaling pathways, EMT and angiogenesis. Conclusion A tumor suppressor gene NEO1 was identified and verified to be correlated with the prognosis and progression of CRC, which could serve as a prognostic biomarker for CRC patients.
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Ashrafizadeh M, Zarrabi A, Saberifar S, Hashemi F, Hushmandi K, Hashemi F, Moghadam ER, Mohammadinejad R, Najafi M, Garg M. Nobiletin in Cancer Therapy: How This Plant Derived-Natural Compound Targets Various Oncogene and Onco-Suppressor Pathways. Biomedicines 2020; 8:biomedicines8050110. [PMID: 32380783 PMCID: PMC7277899 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines8050110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Revised: 04/28/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer therapy is a growing field, and annually, a high number of research is performed to develop novel antitumor drugs. Attempts to find new antitumor drugs continue, since cancer cells are able to acquire resistance to conventional drugs. Natural chemicals can be considered as promising candidates in the field of cancer therapy due to their multiple-targeting capability. The nobiletin (NOB) is a ubiquitous flavone isolated from Citrus fruits. The NOB has a variety of pharmacological activities, such as antidiabetes, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, and neuroprotective. Among them, the antitumor activity of NOB has been under attention over recent years. In this review, we comprehensively describe the efficacy of NOB in cancer therapy. NOB induces apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in cancer cells. It can suppress migration and invasion of cancer cells via the inhibition of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and EMT-related factors such as TGF-β, ZEB, Slug, and Snail. Besides, NOB inhibits oncogene factors such as STAT3, NF-κB, Akt, PI3K, Wnt, and so on. Noteworthy, onco-suppressor factors such as microRNA-7 and -200b undergo upregulation by NOB in cancer therapy. These onco-suppressor and oncogene pathways and mechanisms are discussed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milad Ashrafizadeh
- Department of Basic Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tabriz, Tabriz 5166616471, Iran;
| | - Ali Zarrabi
- Sabanci University Nanotechnology Research and Application Center (SUNUM), Tuzla, Istanbul 34956, Turkey;
| | - Sedigheh Saberifar
- Department of Basic Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz 6135783151, Iran;
| | - Farid Hashemi
- DVM. Graduated, Young Researcher and Elite Club, Kazerun Branch, Islamic Azad University, Kazeroon 7319846451, Iran;
| | - Kiavash Hushmandi
- Department of Food Hygiene and Quality Control, Division of Epidemiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tehran, Tehran 1417414418, Iran;
| | - Fardin Hashemi
- Student Research Committee, Department of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Rehabilitation, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz 6135715749, Iran;
| | - Ebrahim Rahmani Moghadam
- Student Research Committee, Department of Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz 7134814336, Iran;
| | - Reza Mohammadinejad
- Neuroscience Research Center, Institute of Neuropharmacology, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman 7619813159, Iran
- Correspondence: (R.M.); (M.N.); (M.G.)
| | - Masoud Najafi
- Radiology and Nuclear Medicine Department, School of Paramedical Sciences, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah 6715847141, Iran
- Correspondence: (R.M.); (M.N.); (M.G.)
| | - Manoj Garg
- Amity Institute of Molecular Medicine and Stem Cell Research (AIMMSCR), Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Sector-125, Noida-201313, India
- Correspondence: (R.M.); (M.N.); (M.G.)
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