The Application of CRISPR/Cas9 Technology for Cancer Immunotherapy: Current Status and Problems

CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knockout strategies for enhancing immunotherapy in breast cancer

Breast cancer, a prevalent disease with significant mortality rates, often presents treatment challenges due to its complex genetic makeup. This review explores the potential of combining Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9) gene knockout strategies with immunotherapeutic approaches to enhance breast cancer treatment. The CRISPR/Cas9 system, renowned for its precision in inducing genetic alterations, can target and eliminate specific cancer cells, thereby minimizing off-target effects. Concurrently, immunotherapy, which leverages the immune system's power to combat cancer, has shown promise in treating breast cancer. By integrating these two strategies, we can potentially augment the effectiveness of immunotherapies by knocking out genes that enable cancer cells to evade the immune system. However, safety considerations, such as off-target effects and immune responses, necessitate careful evaluation. Current research endeavors aim to optimize these strategies and ascertain the most effective methods to stimulate the immune response. This review provides novel insights into the integration of CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knockout strategies and immunotherapy, a promising avenue that could revolutionize breast cancer treatment as our understanding of the immune system's interplay with cancer deepens.

Current application and future perspective of CRISPR/cas9 gene editing system mediated immune checkpoint for liver cancer treatment

Liver cancer, which is well-known to us as one of human most prevalent malignancies across the globe, poses a significant risk to live condition and life safety of individuals in every region of the planet. It has been shown that immune checkpoint treatment may enhance survival benefits and make a significant contribution to patient prognosis, which makes it a promising and popular therapeutic option for treating liver cancer at the current time. However, there are only a very few numbers of patients who can benefit from the treatment and there also exist adverse events such as toxic effects and so on, which is still required further research and discussion. Fortunately, the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat/CRISPR-associated nuclease 9 (CRISPR/Cas9) provides a potential strategy for immunotherapy and immune checkpoint therapy of liver cancer. In this review, we focus on elucidating the fundamentals of the recently developed CRISPR/Cas9 technology as well as the present-day landscape of immune checkpoint treatment which pertains to liver cancer. What's more, we aim to explore the molecular mechanism of immune checkpoint treatment in liver cancer based on CRISPR/Cas9 technology. At last, its encouraging and powerful potential in the future application of the clinic is discussed, along with the issues that already exist and the difficulties that must be overcome. To sum up, our ultimate goal is to create a fresh knowledge that we can utilize this new CRISPR/Cas9 technology for the current popular immune checkpoint therapy to overcome the treatment issues of liver cancer.

CRISPR-Cas9 in basic and translational aspects of cancer therapy

Introduction

The discovery of gene editing techniques has opened a new era within the field of biology and enabled scientists to manipulate nucleic acid molecules. CRISPR-Cas9 genome engineering has revolutionized this achievement by successful targeting the DNA molecule and editing its sequence. Since genomic changes are the basis of the birth and growth of many tumors, CRISPR-Cas9 method has been successfully applied to identify and manipulate the genes which are involved in initiating and driving some neoplastic processes.

Methods

By review of the existing literature on application of CRISPR-Cas9 in cancer, different databases, such as PubMed and Google Scholar, we started data collection for "CRISPR-Cas9", "Genome Editing", "Cancer", "Solid tumors", "Hematologic malignancy" "Immunotherapy", "Diagnosis", "Drug resistance" phrases. Clinicaltrials.gov, a resource that provides access to information on clinical trials, was also searched in this review.

Results

We have defined the basics of this technology and then mentioned some clinical and preclinical studies using this technology in the treatment of a variety of solid tumors as well as hematologic neoplasms. Finally, we described the progress made by this technology in boosting immune-mediated cell therapy in oncology, such as CAR-T cells, CAR-NK cells, and CAR-M cells.

Conclusion

CRISPR-Cas9 system revolutionized the therapeutic strategies in some solid malignant tumors and leukemia through targeting the key genes involved in the pathogenesis of these cancers.

Comprehensive review of CRISPR-based gene editing: mechanisms, challenges, and applications in cancer therapy

The CRISPR system is a revolutionary genome editing tool that has the potential to revolutionize the field of cancer research and therapy. The ability to precisely target and edit specific genetic mutations that drive the growth and spread of tumors has opened up new possibilities for the development of more effective and personalized cancer treatments. In this review, we will discuss the different CRISPR-based strategies that have been proposed for cancer therapy, including inactivating genes that drive tumor growth, enhancing the immune response to cancer cells, repairing genetic mutations that cause cancer, and delivering cancer-killing molecules directly to tumor cells. We will also summarize the current state of preclinical studies and clinical trials of CRISPR-based cancer therapy, highlighting the most promising results and the challenges that still need to be overcome. Safety and delivery are also important challenges for CRISPR-based cancer therapy to become a viable clinical option. We will discuss the challenges and limitations that need to be overcome, such as off-target effects, safety, and delivery to the tumor site. Finally, we will provide an overview of the current challenges and opportunities in the field of CRISPR-based cancer therapy and discuss future directions for research and development. The CRISPR system has the potential to change the landscape of cancer research, and this review aims to provide an overview of the current state of the field and the challenges that need to be overcome to realize this potential.

Preclinical Anticipation of On- and Off-Target Resistance Mechanisms to Anti-Cancer Drugs: A Systematic Review

The advent of targeted therapies has led to tremendous improvements in treatment options and their outcomes in the field of oncology. Yet, many cancers outsmart precision drugs by developing on-target or off-target resistance mechanisms. Gaining the ability to resist treatment is the rule rather than the exception in tumors, and it remains a major healthcare challenge to achieve long-lasting remission in most cancer patients. Here, we discuss emerging strategies that take advantage of innovative high-throughput screening technologies to anticipate on- and off-target resistance mechanisms before they occur in treated cancer patients. We divide the methods into non-systematic approaches, such as random mutagenesis or long-term drug treatment, and systematic approaches, relying on the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) system, saturated mutagenesis, or computational methods. All these new developments, especially genome-wide CRISPR-based screening platforms, have significantly accelerated the processes for identification of the mechanisms responsible for cancer drug resistance and opened up new avenues for future treatments.

CRISPR/Cas gene editing and delivery systems for cancer therapy

CRISPR/Cas systems stand out because of simplicity, efficiency, and other superiorities, thus becoming attractive and brilliant gene-editing tools in biomedical field including cancer therapy. CRISPR/Cas systems bring promises for cancer therapy through manipulating and engineering on tumor cells or immune cells. However, there have been concerns about how to overcome the numerous physiological barriers and deliver CRISPR components to target cells efficiently and accurately. In this review, we introduced the mechanisms of CRISPR/Cas systems, summarized the current delivery strategies of CRISPR/Cas systems by physical methods, viral vectors, and nonviral vectors, and presented the current application of CRISPR/Cas systems in cancer clinical treatment. Furthermore, we discussed prospects related to delivery approaches of CRISPR/Cas systems. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease.

Oncolytic Viruses in the Era of Omics, Computational Technologies, and Modeling: Thesis, Antithesis, and Synthesis

Oncolytic viruses (OVs) are the frontier therapy for refractory cancers, especially in integration with immunomodulation strategies. In cancer immunovirotherapy, the many available "omics" and systems biology technologies generate at a fast pace a challenging huge amount of data, where apparently clashing information mirrors the complexity of individual clinical situations and OV used. In this review, we present and discuss how currently big data analysis, on one hand and, on the other, simulation, modeling, and computational technologies, provide invaluable support to interpret and integrate "omic" information and drive novel synthetic biology and personalized OV engineering approaches for effective immunovirotherapy. Altogether, these tools, possibly aided in the future by artificial intelligence as well, will allow for the blending of the information into OV recombinants able to achieve tumor clearance in a patient-tailored way. Various endeavors to the envisioned "synthesis" of turning OVs into personalized theranostic agents are presented.

The CAR macrophage cells, a novel generation of chimeric antigen-based approach against solid tumors

Today, adoptive cell therapy has many successes in cancer therapy, and this subject is brilliant in using chimeric antigen receptor T cells. The CAR T cell therapy, with its FDA-approved drugs, could treat several types of hematological malignancies and thus be very attractive for treating solid cancer. Unfortunately, the CAR T cell cannot be very functional in solid cancers due to its unique features. This treatment method has several harmful adverse effects that limit their applications, so novel treatments must use new cells like NK cells, NKT cells, and macrophage cells. Among these cells, the CAR macrophage cells, due to their brilliant innate features, are more attractive for solid tumor therapy and seem to be a better candidate for the prior treatment methods. The CAR macrophage cells have vital roles in the tumor microenvironment and, with their direct effect, can eliminate tumor cells efficiently. In addition, the CAR macrophage cells, due to being a part of the innate immune system, attended the tumor sites. With the high infiltration, their therapy modulations are more effective. This review investigates the last achievements in CAR-macrophage cells and the future of this immunotherapy treatment method.

Biomaterials-mediated CRISPR/Cas9 delivery: recent challenges and opportunities in gene therapy

The use of biomaterials in delivering CRISPR/Cas9 for gene therapy in infectious diseases holds tremendous potential. This innovative approach combines the advantages of CRISPR/Cas9 with the protective properties of biomaterials, enabling accurate and efficient gene editing while enhancing safety. Biomaterials play a vital role in shielding CRISPR/Cas9 components, such as lipid nanoparticles or viral vectors, from immunological processes and degradation, extending their effectiveness. By utilizing the flexibility of biomaterials, tailored systems can be designed to address specific genetic diseases, paving the way for personalized therapeutics. Furthermore, this delivery method offers promising avenues in combating viral illnesses by precisely modifying pathogen genomes, and reducing their pathogenicity. Biomaterials facilitate site-specific gene modifications, ensuring effective delivery to infected cells while minimizing off-target effects. However, challenges remain, including optimizing delivery efficiency, reducing off-target effects, ensuring long-term safety, and establishing scalable production techniques. Thorough research, pre-clinical investigations, and rigorous safety evaluations are imperative for successful translation from the laboratory to clinical applications. In this review, we discussed how CRISPR/Cas9 delivery using biomaterials revolutionizes gene therapy and infectious disease treatment, offering precise and safe editing capabilities with the potential to significantly improve human health and quality of life.

CRISPR-Based Approaches for Cancer Immunotherapy

Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) technology is a powerful gene editing tool that has the potential to revolutionize cancer treatment. It allows for precise and efficient editing of specific genes that drive cancer growth and progression. CRISPR-based approaches gene knock-out, which deletes specific genes or sequences of DNA within a cancer cell, and gene knock-in, which inserts new sequences of DNA into a cancer cell to identify potential targets for cancer therapy. Further, genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9-based screens identify specific markers for diagnosis of cancers. Recently, immunotherapy has become a highly efficient strategy for the treatment of cancer. The use of CRISPR in cancer immunotherapy is focused on enhancing the function of T cells, making them more effective at attacking cancer cells and inactivating the immune evasion mechanisms of cancer cells. It has the potential to generate CAR-T cells, which are T cells that have been genetically engineered to target and attack cancer cells specifically. This review uncovers the latest developments in CRISPR-based gene editing strategies and delivery of their components in cancer cells. In addition, the applications of CRISPR in cancer immune therapy are discussed. Overall, this review helps to explore the potential of CRISPR-based strategies in cancer immune therapy in clinical settings.

CRISPR/Cas9 as precision and high-throughput genetic engineering tools in gastrointestinal cancer research and therapy

Gastrointestinal cancer (GI) is one of the most serious and health-threatening diseases worldwide. Many countries have encountered an escalating prevalence of shock. Therefore, there is a pressing need to clarify the molecular pathogenesis of these cancers. The use of high-throughput technologies that allow the precise and simultaneous investigation of thousands of genes, proteins, and metabolites is a critical step in disease diagnosis and cure. Recent innovations have provided easy and reliable methods for genome investigation, including TALENs, ZFNs, and the CRISPR/Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeats system). Among these, CRISPR/Cas9 has been revolutionary tool in genetic research. Recent years were prosperous years for CRISPR by the discovery of novel Cas enzymes, the Nobel Prize, and the development of critical clinical trials. This technology utilizes comprehensive information on genes associated with tumor development, provides high-throughput libraries for tumor therapy by developing screening platforms, and generates rapid tools for cancer therapy. This review discusses the various applications of CRISPR/Cas9 in genome editing, with a particular focus on genome manipulation, including infection-related genes, RNAi targets, pooled library screening for identification of unknown driver mutations, and molecular targets for gastrointestinal cancer modeling. Finally, it provides an overview of CRISPR/Cas9 clinical trials, as well as the challenges associated with its use.