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Kuo HY, Khan KA, Kerbel RS. Antiangiogenic-immune-checkpoint inhibitor combinations: lessons from phase III clinical trials. Nat Rev Clin Oncol 2024; 21:468-482. [PMID: 38600370 DOI: 10.1038/s41571-024-00886-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/12/2024]
Abstract
Antiangiogenic agents, generally antibodies or tyrosine-kinase inhibitors that target the VEGF-VEGFR pathway, are currently among the few combination partners clinically proven to improve the efficacy of immune-checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs). This benefit has been demonstrated in pivotal phase III trials across different cancer types, some with practice-changing results; however, numerous phase III trials have also had negative results. The rationale for using antiangiogenic drugs as partners for ICIs relies primarily on blocking the multiple immunosuppressive effects of VEGF and inducing several different vascular-modulating effects that can stimulate immunity, such as vascular normalization leading to increased intratumoural blood perfusion and flow, and inhibition of pro-apoptotic effects of endothelial cells on T cells, among others. Conversely, VEGF blockade can also cause changes that suppress antitumour immunity, such as increased tumour hypoxia, and reduced intratumoural ingress of co-administered ICIs. As a result, the net clinical benefits from antiangiogenic-ICI combinations will be determined by the balance between the opposing effects of VEGF signalling and its inhibition on the antitumour immune response. In this Perspective, we summarize the results from the currently completed phase III trials evaluating antiangiogenic agent-ICI combinations. We also discuss strategies to improve the efficacy of these combinations, focusing on aspects that include the deleterious functions of VEGF-VEGFR inhibition on antitumour immunity, vessel co-option as a driver of non-angiogenic tumour growth, clinical trial design, or the rationale for drug selection, dosing and scheduling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hung-Yang Kuo
- Department of Oncology, National Taiwan University Hospital, and Graduate Institute of Oncology, National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan.
| | - Kabir A Khan
- Biological Sciences Platform, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
| | - Robert S Kerbel
- Biological Sciences Platform, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
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2
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Fischer A, Alsina-Sanchis E. Disturbed endothelial cell signaling in tumor progression and therapy resistance. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2024; 86:102287. [PMID: 38029706 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceb.2023.102287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Revised: 10/17/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
Growth of new blood vessels is considered requisite to cancer progression. Recent findings revealed that in addition to inducing angiogenesis, tumor-derived factors alter endothelial cell gene transcription within the tumor mass but also systemically throughout the body. This subsequently contributes to immunosuppression, altered metabolism, therapy resistance and metastasis. Clinical studies demonstrated that targeting the endothelium can increase the success rate of immunotherapy. Single-cell technologies revealed remarkable organ-specific endothelial heterogeneity that becomes altered by the presence of a tumor. In metastases, endothelial transcription differs remarkably between newly formed and co-opted vessels which may provide a basis for developing new therapies to target endothelial cells and overcome therapy resistance more effectively. This review addresses how cancers impact the endothelium to facilitate tumor progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Fischer
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen University, 37075 Göttingen, Germany; German Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner Site Göttingen, Germany.
| | - Elisenda Alsina-Sanchis
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen University, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
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3
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Carrera-Aguado I, Marcos-Zazo L, Carrancio-Salán P, Guerra-Paes E, Sánchez-Juanes F, Muñoz-Félix JM. The Inhibition of Vessel Co-Option as an Emerging Strategy for Cancer Therapy. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:921. [PMID: 38255995 PMCID: PMC10815934 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25020921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Revised: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Vessel co-option (VCO) is a non-angiogenic mechanism of vascularization that has been associated to anti-angiogenic therapy. In VCO, cancer cells hijack the pre-existing blood vessels and use them to obtain oxygen and nutrients and invade adjacent tissue. Multiple primary tumors and metastases undergo VCO in highly vascularized tissues such as the lungs, liver or brain. VCO has been associated with a worse prognosis. The cellular and molecular mechanisms that undergo VCO are poorly understood. Recent studies have demonstrated that co-opted vessels show a quiescent phenotype in contrast to angiogenic tumor blood vessels. On the other hand, it is believed that during VCO, cancer cells are adhered to basement membrane from pre-existing blood vessels by using integrins, show enhanced motility and a mesenchymal phenotype. Other components of the tumor microenvironment (TME) such as extracellular matrix, immune cells or extracellular vesicles play important roles in vessel co-option maintenance. There are no strategies to inhibit VCO, and thus, to eliminate resistance to anti-angiogenic therapy. This review summarizes all the molecular mechanisms involved in vessel co-option analyzing the possible therapeutic strategies to inhibit this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iván Carrera-Aguado
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad de Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain; (I.C.-A.); (L.M.-Z.); (P.C.-S.); (E.G.-P.); (F.S.-J.)
- Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Salamanca (IBSAL), 37007 Salamanca, Spain
| | - Laura Marcos-Zazo
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad de Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain; (I.C.-A.); (L.M.-Z.); (P.C.-S.); (E.G.-P.); (F.S.-J.)
- Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Salamanca (IBSAL), 37007 Salamanca, Spain
| | - Patricia Carrancio-Salán
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad de Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain; (I.C.-A.); (L.M.-Z.); (P.C.-S.); (E.G.-P.); (F.S.-J.)
- Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Salamanca (IBSAL), 37007 Salamanca, Spain
| | - Elena Guerra-Paes
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad de Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain; (I.C.-A.); (L.M.-Z.); (P.C.-S.); (E.G.-P.); (F.S.-J.)
- Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Salamanca (IBSAL), 37007 Salamanca, Spain
| | - Fernando Sánchez-Juanes
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad de Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain; (I.C.-A.); (L.M.-Z.); (P.C.-S.); (E.G.-P.); (F.S.-J.)
- Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Salamanca (IBSAL), 37007 Salamanca, Spain
| | - José M. Muñoz-Félix
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad de Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain; (I.C.-A.); (L.M.-Z.); (P.C.-S.); (E.G.-P.); (F.S.-J.)
- Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Salamanca (IBSAL), 37007 Salamanca, Spain
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4
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Ribatti D, Annese T, Tamma R. Vascular co-option in resistance to anti-angiogenic therapy. Front Oncol 2023; 13:1323350. [PMID: 38148844 PMCID: PMC10750409 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2023.1323350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2023] [Accepted: 11/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Three different mechanisms of neovascularization have been described in tumor growth, including sprouting angiogenesis, intussusceptive microvascular growth and glomeruloid vascular proliferation. Tumors can also grow by means of alternative mechanisms including vascular co-option, vasculogenic mimicry, angiotropism, and recruitment of endothelial precursor cells. Vascular co-option occurs in tumors independently of sprouting angiogenesis and the non-angiogenic cancer cells are described as exploiting pre-existing vessels. Vascular co-option is more frequently observed in tumors of densely vascularized organs, including the brain, lung and liver, and vascular co-option represents one of the main mechanisms involved in metastasis, as occurs in liver and lung, and resistance to anti-angiogenic therapy. The aim of this review article is to analyze the role of vascular co-option as mechanism through which tumors develop resistance to anti-angiogenic conventional therapeutic approaches and how blocking co-option can suppress tumor growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Domenico Ribatti
- Department of Translational Biomedicine and Neuroscience, University of Bari Medical School, Bari, Italy
| | - Tiziana Annese
- Department of Translational Biomedicine and Neuroscience, University of Bari Medical School, Bari, Italy
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, Libera Università del Mediterraneo (LUM) Giuseppe Degennaro University, Bari, Italy
| | - Roberto Tamma
- Department of Translational Biomedicine and Neuroscience, University of Bari Medical School, Bari, Italy
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5
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Stokes ME, Calvo V, Fujisawa S, Dudgeon C, Huang S, Ballal N, Shen L, Gasparek J, Betzenhauser M, Taylor SJ, Staschke KA, Rigby AC, Mulvihill MJ, Bose N, Lightcap ES, Surguladze D. PERK Inhibition by HC-5404 Sensitizes Renal Cell Carcinoma Tumor Models to Antiangiogenic Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors. Clin Cancer Res 2023; 29:4870-4882. [PMID: 37733811 PMCID: PMC10690095 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-23-1182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Revised: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Tumors activate protein kinase R (PKR)-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK, also called EIF2AK3) in response to hypoxia and nutrient deprivation as a stress-mitigation strategy. Here, we tested the hypothesis that inhibiting PERK with HC-5404 enhances the antitumor efficacy of standard-of-care VEGF receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitors (VEGFR-TKI). EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN HC-5404 was characterized as a potent and selective PERK inhibitor, with favorable in vivo properties. Multiple renal cell carcinoma (RCC) tumor models were then cotreated with both HC-5404 and VEGFR-TKI in vivo, measuring tumor volume across time and evaluating tumor response by protein analysis and IHC. RESULTS VEGFR-TKI including axitinib, cabozantinib, lenvatinib, and sunitinib induce PERK activation in 786-O RCC xenografts. Cotreatment with HC-5404 inhibited PERK in tumors and significantly increased antitumor effects of VEGFR-TKI across multiple RCC models, resulting in tumor stasis or regression. Analysis of tumor sections revealed that HC-5404 enhanced the antiangiogenic effects of axitinib and lenvatinib by inhibiting both new vasculature and mature tumor blood vessels. Xenografts that progress on axitinib monotherapy remain sensitive to the combination treatment, resulting in ∼20% tumor regression in the combination group. When tested across a panel of 18 RCC patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models, the combination induced greater antitumor effects relative to monotherapies. In this single animal study, nine out of 18 models responded with ≥50% tumor regression from baseline in the combination group. CONCLUSIONS By disrupting an adaptive stress response evoked by VEGFR-TKI, HC-5404 presents a clinical opportunity to improve the antitumor effects of well-established standard-of-care therapies in RCC.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Leyi Shen
- HiberCell, Inc., New York City, New York
| | | | | | - Simon J. Taylor
- Drug Discovery, Pharmaron UK Ltd., Hoddesdon, Herts, United Kingdom
| | - Kirk A. Staschke
- Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana
- Indiana University Melvin and Bren Simon Comprehensive Cancer Center, Indianapolis, Indiana
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6
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Shen R, Jiang Q, Li P, Wang D, Yu C, Meng T, Hu F, Yuan H. "Targeted plus controlled" - Composite nano delivery system opens the tumor vascular and microenvironment normalization window for anti-tumor therapy. Int J Pharm 2023; 647:123512. [PMID: 37839496 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2023.123512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Revised: 10/09/2023] [Accepted: 10/13/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023]
Abstract
The bottleneck of traditional anti-tumor therapy is mainly limited by the abnormal microenvironment of tumors. Leaky vessels are difficult for drugs or immune cells to penetrate deep into tumors, but tumor cells can easily escape through which and metastasize to other organs. Reprogramming the tumor microenvironment is one of the main directions for anti-cancer research, among which, tumor vascular normalization has received increasing attention. However, how to control the dose and time of anti-angiogenic drugs for stable vascular normalizing effect limits it for further research. We developed a composite nano delivery system, P-V@MG, with double delivery function of pH-responsibility and sustained drug release. The PHMEMA shell improves amphiphilicity of nano delivery system and prolongs in vivo retention, and releases V@MG in the weakly acidic tumor microenvironment, which slowly release anti-angiogenic drugs, Vandetanib. We found that P-V@MG not only prolonged the normalization window of tumor vascular but also reprogram tumor microenvironment with increased perfusion, immune cells infiltration and relieved hypoxia, which further opened the pathway for other anti-cancer therapeutics. This synergy was proved by the improving anti-tumor efficiency by combination of P-V@MG with the doxorubicin hydrochloride in 4 T1 breast cancer model suggesting the desirable value of pro-vascular normalization nano delivery systems in the field of anti-tumor combination therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruoyu Shen
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang University, 310058 Hangzhou, China
| | - Qi Jiang
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang University, 310058 Hangzhou, China
| | - Peirong Li
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang University, 310058 Hangzhou, China
| | - Ding Wang
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang University, 310058 Hangzhou, China
| | - Caini Yu
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang University, 310058 Hangzhou, China
| | - Tingting Meng
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang University, 310058 Hangzhou, China; Jinhua Institute of Zhejiang University, 321299 Jinhua, China
| | - Fuqiang Hu
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang University, 310058 Hangzhou, China
| | - Hong Yuan
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang University, 310058 Hangzhou, China; Jinhua Institute of Zhejiang University, 321299 Jinhua, China.
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7
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Chen GQ, Nan Y, Huang SC, Ning N, Du YH, Lu DD, Yang YT, Meng FD, Yuan L. Research progress of ginger in the treatment of gastrointestinal tumors. World J Gastrointest Oncol 2023; 15:1835-1851. [DOI: 10.4251/wjgo.v15.i11.1835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2023] [Revised: 09/15/2023] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer seriously endangers human health. Gastrointestinal cancer is the most common and major malignant tumor, and its morbidity and mortality are gradually increasing. Although there are effective treatments such as radiotherapy and chemotherapy for gastrointestinal tumors, they are often accompanied by serious side effects. According to the traditional Chinese medicine and food homology theory, many materials are both food and medicine. Moreover, food is just as capable of preventing and treating diseases as medicine. Medicine and food homologous herbs not only have excellent pharmacological effects and activities but also have few side effects. As a typical medicinal herb with both medicinal and edible uses, some components of ginger have been shown to have good efficacy and safety against cancer. A mass of evidence has also shown that ginger has anti-tumor effects on digestive tract cancers (such as gastric cancer, colorectal cancer, liver cancer, laryngeal cancer, and pancreatic cancer) through a variety of pathways. The aim of this study is to investigate the mechanisms of action of the main components of ginger and their potential clinical applications in treating gastrointestinal tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guo-Qing Chen
- College of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical College, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, China
| | - Yi Nan
- Key Laboratory of Ningxia Ethnomedicine Modernization, Ministry of Education, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, China
- Traditional Chinese Medicine College, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, China
| | - Shi-Cong Huang
- College of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical College, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, China
| | - Na Ning
- College of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical College, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, China
| | - Yu-Hua Du
- College of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical College, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, China
| | - Dou-Dou Lu
- School of Clinical Medicine College, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, China
| | - Ya-Ting Yang
- Traditional Chinese Medicine College, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, China
| | - Fan-Di Meng
- Traditional Chinese Medicine College, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, China
| | - Ling Yuan
- College of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical College, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, China
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8
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Nowosad A, Marine JC, Karras P. Perivascular niches: critical hubs in cancer evolution. Trends Cancer 2023; 9:897-910. [PMID: 37453870 DOI: 10.1016/j.trecan.2023.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 06/15/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
Tumors are heterogeneous ecosystems in which cancer cells coexist within a complex tumor immune microenvironment (TIME). The malignant, stromal, and immune cell compartments establish a plethora of bidirectional cell-cell communication crosstalks that influence tumor growth and metastatic dissemination, which we are only beginning to understand. Cancer cells either co-opt or promote the formation of new blood and lymphatic vessels to cope with their need for nutrients and oxygen. Recent studies have highlighted additional key roles for the tumor vasculature and have identified the perivascular niche as a cellular hub, where intricate and dynamic cellular interactions promote cancer stemness, immune evasion, dormancy, and metastatic spreading. Here, we review these findings, and discuss how they may be exploited therapeutically.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ada Nowosad
- Laboratory for Molecular Cancer Biology, VIB Center for Cancer Biology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; Department of Oncology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jean-Christophe Marine
- Laboratory for Molecular Cancer Biology, VIB Center for Cancer Biology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; Department of Oncology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Panagiotis Karras
- Laboratory for Molecular Cancer Biology, VIB Center for Cancer Biology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; Department of Oncology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
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9
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Grizzi F, Hegazi MAAA, Zanoni M, Vota P, Toia G, Clementi MC, Mazzieri C, Chiriva-Internati M, Taverna G. Prostate Cancer Microvascular Routes: Exploration and Measurement Strategies. Life (Basel) 2023; 13:2034. [PMID: 37895416 PMCID: PMC10608780 DOI: 10.3390/life13102034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Revised: 10/05/2023] [Accepted: 10/07/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Angiogenesis is acknowledged as a pivotal feature in the pathology of human cancer. Despite the absence of universally accepted markers for gauging the comprehensive angiogenic activity in prostate cancer (PCa) that could steer the formulation of focused anti-angiogenic treatments, the scrutiny of diverse facets of tumoral blood vessel development may furnish significant understanding of angiogenic processes. Malignant neoplasms, encompassing PCa, deploy a myriad of strategies to secure an adequate blood supply. These modalities range from sprouting angiogenesis and vasculogenesis to intussusceptive angiogenesis, vascular co-option, the formation of mosaic vessels, vasculogenic mimicry, the conversion of cancer stem-like cells into tumor endothelial cells, and vascular pruning. Here we provide a thorough review of these angiogenic mechanisms as they relate to PCa, discuss their prospective relevance for predictive and prognostic evaluations, and outline the prevailing obstacles in quantitatively evaluating neovascularization via histopathological examinations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio Grizzi
- Department of Immunology and Inflammation, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy;
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Pieve Emanuele, 20072 Milan, Italy;
| | - Mohamed A. A. A. Hegazi
- Department of Immunology and Inflammation, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy;
| | - Matteo Zanoni
- Department of Urology, Humanitas Mater Domini, Castellanza, 21053 Varese, Italy; (M.Z.); (P.V.); (G.T.); (M.C.C.); (C.M.)
| | - Paolo Vota
- Department of Urology, Humanitas Mater Domini, Castellanza, 21053 Varese, Italy; (M.Z.); (P.V.); (G.T.); (M.C.C.); (C.M.)
| | - Giovanni Toia
- Department of Urology, Humanitas Mater Domini, Castellanza, 21053 Varese, Italy; (M.Z.); (P.V.); (G.T.); (M.C.C.); (C.M.)
| | - Maria Chiara Clementi
- Department of Urology, Humanitas Mater Domini, Castellanza, 21053 Varese, Italy; (M.Z.); (P.V.); (G.T.); (M.C.C.); (C.M.)
| | - Cinzia Mazzieri
- Department of Urology, Humanitas Mater Domini, Castellanza, 21053 Varese, Italy; (M.Z.); (P.V.); (G.T.); (M.C.C.); (C.M.)
| | - Maurizio Chiriva-Internati
- Departments of Gastroenterology, Hepatology & Nutrition, Division of Internal Medicine, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA;
| | - Gianluigi Taverna
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Pieve Emanuele, 20072 Milan, Italy;
- Department of Urology, Humanitas Mater Domini, Castellanza, 21053 Varese, Italy; (M.Z.); (P.V.); (G.T.); (M.C.C.); (C.M.)
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10
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McCormick AL, Anderson TS, Daugherity EA, Okpalanwaka IF, Smith SL, Appiah D, Lowe DB. Targeting the pericyte antigen DLK1 with an alpha type-1 polarized dendritic cell vaccine results in tumor vascular modulation and protection against colon cancer progression. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1241949. [PMID: 37849752 PMCID: PMC10578441 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1241949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the availability of various treatment options, colorectal cancer (CRC) remains a significant contributor to cancer-related mortality. Current standard-of-care interventions, including surgery, chemotherapy, and targeted agents like immune checkpoint blockade and anti-angiogenic therapies, have improved short-term patient outcomes depending on disease stage, but survival rates with metastasis remain low. A promising strategy to enhance the clinical experience with CRC involves the use of dendritic cell (DC) vaccines that incite immunity against tumor-derived blood vessels, which are necessary for CRC growth and progression. In this report, we target tumor-derived pericytes expressing DLK1 with a clinically-relevant alpha type-1 polarized DC vaccine (αDC1) in a syngeneic mouse model of colorectal cancer. Our pre-clinical data demonstrate the αDC1 vaccine's ability to induce anti-tumor effects by facilitating cytotoxic T lymphocyte activity and ablating the tumor vasculature. This work, overall, provides a foundation to further interrogate immune-mediated mechanisms of protection in order to help devise efficacious αDC1-based strategies for patients with CRC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda L. McCormick
- Department of Immunotherapeutics and Biotechnology, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Abilene, TX, United States
| | - Trevor S. Anderson
- Department of Immunotherapeutics and Biotechnology, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Abilene, TX, United States
| | - Elizabeth A. Daugherity
- Department of Immunotherapeutics and Biotechnology, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Abilene, TX, United States
| | - Izuchukwu F. Okpalanwaka
- Department of Immunotherapeutics and Biotechnology, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Abilene, TX, United States
| | - Savanna L. Smith
- Department of Immunotherapeutics and Biotechnology, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Abilene, TX, United States
| | - Duke Appiah
- Department of Public Health, School of Population and Public Health, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, United States
| | - Devin B. Lowe
- Department of Immunotherapeutics and Biotechnology, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Abilene, TX, United States
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11
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Lin X, Long S, Yan C, Zou X, Zhang G, Zou J, Wu G. Therapeutic potential of vasculogenic mimicry in urological tumors. Front Oncol 2023; 13:1202656. [PMID: 37810976 PMCID: PMC10551447 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2023.1202656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2023] [Accepted: 09/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Angiogenesis is an essential process in the growth and metastasis of cancer cells, which can be hampered by an anti-angiogenesis mechanism, thereby delaying the progression of tumors. However, the benefit of this treatment modality could be restricted, as most patients tend to develop acquired resistance during treatment. Vasculogenic mimicry (VM) is regarded as a critical alternative mechanism of tumor angiogenesis, where studies have demonstrated that patients with tumors supplemented with VM generally have a shorter survival period and a poorer prognosis. Inhibiting VM may be an effective therapeutic strategy to prevent cancer progression, which could prove helpful in impeding the limitations of lone use of anti-angiogenic therapy when performed concurrently with other anti-tumor therapies. This review summarizes the mechanism of VM signaling pathways in urological tumors, i.e., prostate cancer, clear cell renal cell carcinoma, and bladder cancer. Furthermore, it also summarizes the potential of VM as a therapeutic strategy for urological tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyu Lin
- The First Clinical College, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi, China
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi, China
| | - Sheng Long
- The First Clinical College, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi, China
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi, China
| | - Congcong Yan
- The First Clinical College, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi, China
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi, China
| | - Xiaofeng Zou
- The First Clinical College, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi, China
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi, China
| | - Guoxi Zhang
- The First Clinical College, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi, China
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi, China
| | - Junrong Zou
- The First Clinical College, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi, China
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi, China
| | - Gengqing Wu
- The First Clinical College, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi, China
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi, China
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Papadakos SP, Stergiou IE, Gkolemi N, Arvanitakis K, Theocharis S. Unraveling the Significance of EPH/Ephrin Signaling in Liver Cancer: Insights into Tumor Progression and Therapeutic Implications. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:3434. [PMID: 37444544 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15133434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2023] [Revised: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Liver cancer is a complex and challenging disease with limited treatment options and dismal prognosis. Understanding the underlying molecular mechanisms driving liver cancer progression and metastasis is crucial for developing effective therapeutic strategies. The EPH/ephrin system, which comprises a family of cell surface receptors and their corresponding ligands, has been implicated in the pathogenesis of HCC. This review paper aims to provide an overview of the current understanding of the role of the EPH/ephrin system in HCC. Specifically, we discuss the dysregulation of EPH/ephrin signaling in HCC and its impact on various cellular processes, including cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. Overall, the EPH/ephrin signaling system emerges as a compelling and multifaceted player in liver cancer biology. Elucidating its precise mechanisms and understanding its implications in disease progression and therapeutic responses may pave the way for novel targeted therapies and personalized treatment approaches for liver cancer patients. Further research is warranted to unravel the full potential of the EPH/ephrin system in liver cancer and its clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stavros P Papadakos
- First Department of Pathology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece
| | - Ioanna E Stergiou
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece
| | - Nikolina Gkolemi
- First Department of Pathology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece
| | - Konstantinos Arvanitakis
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, First Department of Internal Medicine, AHEPA University Hospital, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, St. Kiriakidi 1, 54636 Thessaloniki, Greece
- Basic and Translational Research Unit, Special Unit for Biomedical Research and Education, School of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54636 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Stamatios Theocharis
- First Department of Pathology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece
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Khan IM, Khan SU, Sala HSS, Khan MU, Ud Din MA, Khan S, Hassan SSU, Khan NM, Liu Y. TME-targeted approaches of brain metastases and its clinical therapeutic evidence. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1131874. [PMID: 37228619 PMCID: PMC10204080 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1131874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2022] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment (TME), which includes both cellular and non-cellular elements, is now recognized as one of the major regulators of the development of primary tumors, the metastasis of which occurs to specific organs, and the response to therapy. Development of immunotherapy and targeted therapies have increased knowledge of cancer-related inflammation Since the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier (BCB) limit immune cells from entering from the periphery, it has long been considered an immunological refuge. Thus, tumor cells that make their way "to the brain were believed to be protected from the body's normal mechanisms of monitoring and eliminating them. In this process, the microenvironment and tumor cells at different stages interact and depend on each other to form the basis of the evolution of tumor brain metastases. This paper focuses on the pathogenesis, microenvironmental changes, and new treatment methods of different types of brain metastases. Through the systematic review and summary from macro to micro, the occurrence and development rules and key driving factors of the disease are revealed, and the clinical precision medicine of brain metastases is comprehensively promoted. Recent research has shed light on the potential of TME-targeted and potential treatments for treating Brain metastases, and we'll use that knowledge to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of these approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ibrar Muhammad Khan
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Embryo Development and Reproduction Regulation, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Environmental Hormone and Reproduction, School of Biological and Food Engineering, Fuyang Normal University, Fuyang, China
| | - Safir Ullah Khan
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Hari Siva Sai Sala
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Embryo Development and Reproduction Regulation, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Environmental Hormone and Reproduction, School of Biological and Food Engineering, Fuyang Normal University, Fuyang, China
| | - Munir Ullah Khan
- MOE Key Laboratory of Macromolecular Synthesis and Functionalization, International Research Center for X Polymers, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | | | - Samiullah Khan
- Institute of Entomology, Guizhou University, Scientific Observing and Experimental Station of Crop Pests, Guiyang, Ministry of Agricultural and Affairs, Guiyang, China
| | - Syed Shams ul Hassan
- Department of Natural Product Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Nazir Muhammad Khan
- Department of Zoology, University of Science and Technology, Bannu, Pakistan
| | - Yong Liu
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Embryo Development and Reproduction Regulation, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Environmental Hormone and Reproduction, School of Biological and Food Engineering, Fuyang Normal University, Fuyang, China
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Schiano C, Balbi C, de Nigris F, Napoli C. Basic Pathogenic Mechanisms and Epigenetic Players Promoted by Extracellular Vesicles in Vascular Damage. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24087509. [PMID: 37108672 PMCID: PMC10138986 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24087509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Revised: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/16/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Both progression from the early pathogenic events to clinically manifest cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and cancer impact the integrity of the vascular system. Pathological vascular modifications are affected by interplay between endothelial cells and their microenvironment. Soluble factors, extracellular matrix molecules and extracellular vesicles (EVs) are emerging determinants of this network that trigger specific signals in target cells. EVs have gained attention as package of molecules with epigenetic reversible activity causing functional vascular changes, but their mechanisms are not well understood. Valuable insights have been provided by recent clinical studies, including the investigation of EVs as potential biomarkers of these diseases. In this paper, we review the role and the mechanism of exosomal epigenetic molecules during the vascular remodeling in coronary heart disease as well as in cancer-associated neoangiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Concetta Schiano
- Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences (DAMSS), University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, 80138 Naples, Italy
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Cardiology, Cardiocentro Ticino Institute, 6807 Taverne-Torricella, Switzerland
| | - Carolina Balbi
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Cardiology, Cardiocentro Ticino Institute, 6807 Taverne-Torricella, Switzerland
| | - Filomena de Nigris
- Department of Precision Medicine, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Claudio Napoli
- Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences (DAMSS), University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, 80138 Naples, Italy
- Clinical Department of Internal Medicine and Specialistic Units, Division of Clinical Immunology and Immunohematology, Transfusion Medicine and Transplant Immunology (SIMT), Azienda Universitaria Policlinico (AOU), 80138 Naples, Italy
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Barb AC, Pasca Fenesan M, Pirtea M, Margan MM, Tomescu L, Melnic E, Cimpean AM. Tertiary Lymphoid Structures (TLSs) and Stromal Blood Vessels Have Significant and Heterogeneous Impact on Recurrence, Lymphovascular and Perineural Invasion amongst Breast Cancer Molecular Subtypes. Cells 2023; 12:cells12081176. [PMID: 37190085 DOI: 10.3390/cells12081176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2023] [Revised: 04/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tertiary lymphoid structures (TLSs) mediate local antitumor immunity, and interest in them significantly increased since cancer immunotherapy was implemented. We examined TLS- tumor stromal blood vessel interplay for each breast cancer (BC) molecular subtype related to recurrence, lymphovascular invasion (LVI), and perineural invasion (PnI). METHODS TLSs were quantified on hematoxylin and eosin stain specimens followed by CD34/smooth muscle actin (SMA) double immunostaining for stromal blood vessel maturation assessment. Statistical analysis linked microscopy to recurrence, LVI, and PnI. RESULTS TLS negative (TLS-) subgroups in each BC molecular subtype (except to Luminal A) have higher LVI, PnI, and recurrence. A significant rise in LVI and PnI were observed for the HER2+/TLS- subgroup (p < 0.001). The triple negative breast cancer (TNBC)/TLS- subgroup had the highest recurrence and invasion risk which was also significantly related to tumor grade. PnI but not LVI significantly influenced recurrence in the TNBC/TLS+ subgroup (p < 0.001). TLS-stromal blood vessel interrelation was different amongst BC molecular subtypes. CONCLUSION BC invasion and recurrence are strongly influenced by TLS presence and stromal blood vessels, especially for HER2 and TNBC BC molecular subtypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alina Cristina Barb
- Department of Microscopic Morphology/Histology, Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
- Doctoral School in Medicine, Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
- OncoHelp Hospital, 300239 Timisoara, Romania
| | - Mihaela Pasca Fenesan
- Department of Microscopic Morphology/Histology, Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
- Doctoral School in Medicine, Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
- OncoHelp Hospital, 300239 Timisoara, Romania
| | - Marilena Pirtea
- Doctoral School in Medicine, Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
| | - Madalin Marius Margan
- Department of Functional Sciences, Discipline of Public Health, Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
| | - Larisa Tomescu
- Doctoral School in Medicine, Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
| | - Eugen Melnic
- Department of Pathology, Nicolae Testemitanu State University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2004 Chișinău, Moldova
| | - Anca Maria Cimpean
- Department of Microscopic Morphology/Histology, Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
- Center of Expertise for Rare Vascular Disease in Children, Emergency Hospital for Children Louis Turcanu, 300011 Timisoara, Romania
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Cunningham C, Bolcaen J, Bisio A, Genis A, Strijdom H, Vandevoorde C. Recombinant Endostatin as a Potential Radiosensitizer in the Treatment of Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:219. [PMID: 37259367 PMCID: PMC9961924 DOI: 10.3390/ph16020219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Revised: 01/22/2023] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the most prevalent type of lung cancer, which is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Over the past decades, tumour angiogenesis has been intensely studied in the treatment of NSCLC due to its fundamental role in cancer progression. Several anti-angiogenic drugs, such as recombinant endostatin (RE), have been evaluated in several preclinical and clinical trials, with mixed and often disappointing results. However, there is currently an emerging interest in RE due to its ability to create a vascular normalization window, which could further improve treatment efficacy of the standard NSCLC treatment. This review provides an overview of preclinical and clinical studies that combined RE and radiotherapy for NSCLC treatment. Furthermore, it highlights the ongoing challenges that have to be overcome in order to maximize the benefit; as well as the potential advantage of combinations with particle therapy and immunotherapy, which are rapidly gaining momentum in the treatment landscape of NSCLC. Different angiogenic and immunosuppressive effects are observed between particle therapy and conventional X-ray radiotherapy. The combination of RE, particle therapy and immunotherapy presents a promising future therapeutic triad for NSCLC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charnay Cunningham
- Centre for Cardio-Metabolic Research in Africa (CARMA), Division of Medical Physiology, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town 7602, South Africa
- Radiation Biophysics Division, SSC Laboratory, NRF Ithemba LABS, Cape Town 7131, South Africa
| | - Julie Bolcaen
- Radiation Biophysics Division, SSC Laboratory, NRF Ithemba LABS, Cape Town 7131, South Africa
| | - Alessandra Bisio
- Department of Cellular, Computational and Integrative Biology—CIBIO, University of Trento, 38123 Trento, Italy
| | - Amanda Genis
- Centre for Cardio-Metabolic Research in Africa (CARMA), Division of Medical Physiology, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town 7602, South Africa
| | - Hans Strijdom
- Centre for Cardio-Metabolic Research in Africa (CARMA), Division of Medical Physiology, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town 7602, South Africa
| | - Charlot Vandevoorde
- Biophysics Department, GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung, Planckstr. 1, 64291 Darmstadt, Germany
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Ni B, Song X, Shi B, Wang J, Sun Q, Wang X, Xu M, Cao L, Zhu G, Li J. Research progress of ginseng in the treatment of gastrointestinal cancers. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:1036498. [PMID: 36313365 PMCID: PMC9603756 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.1036498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2022] [Accepted: 10/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer has become one of the major causes of human death. Several anticancer drugs are available; howeve their use and efficacy are limited by the toxic side effects and drug resistance caused by their continuous application. Many natural products have antitumor effects with low toxicity and fewer adverse effects. Moreover, they play an important role in enhancing the cytotoxicity of chemotherapeutic agents, reducing toxic side effects, and reversing chemoresistance. Consequently, natural drugs are being applied as potential therapeutic options in the field of antitumor treatment. As natural medicinal plants, some components of ginseng have been shown to have excellent efficacy and a good safety profile for cancer treatment. The pharmacological activities and possible mechanisms of action of ginseng have been identified. Its broad range of pharmacological activities includes antitumor, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-stress, anti-fibrotic, central nervous system modulating, cardioprotective, and immune-enhancing effects. Numerous studies have also shown that throuth multiple pathways, ginseng and its active ingredients exert antitumor effects on gastrointestinal (GI) tract tumors, such as esophageal, gastric, colorectal, liver, and pancreatic cancers. Herein, we introduced the main components of ginseng, including ginsenosides, polysaccharides, and sterols, etc., and reviewed the mechanism of action and research progress of ginseng in the treatment of various GI tumors. Futhermore, the pathways of action of the main components of ginseng are discussed in depth to promote the clinical development and application of ginseng in the field of anti-GI tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baoyi Ni
- Guang’anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaotong Song
- Guang’anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Bolun Shi
- Guang’anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jia Wang
- Hongqi Hospital of Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, China
| | - Qianhui Sun
- Guang’anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xinmiao Wang
- Guang’anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Manman Xu
- Guang’anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Luchang Cao
- Guang’anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | | | - Jie Li
- Guang’anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Jie Li,
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