Case Report: Anterior Scleritis Presenting as a Primary Ocular Manifestation in Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children With COVID-19

Ocular manifestations of COVID-19

There is an increasing body of knowledge regarding how COVID-19 may be associated with ocular disease of varying severity and duration. This article discusses the literature on the ocular manifestations associated with COVID-19, including appraisal of the current evidence, suggested mechanisms of action, associated comorbidities and risk factors, timing from initial infection to diagnosis and clinical red flags. The current literature primarily comprises case reports and case series which inevitably lack control groups and evidence to support causality. However, these early data have prompted the development of larger population-based and laboratory studies that are emerging. As new data become available, a better appraisal of the true effects of COVID-19 on the eye will be possible. While the COVID-19 pandemic was officially declared no longer a "global health emergency" by the World Health Organization (WHO) in May 2023, case numbers continue to rise. Reinfection with different variants is predicted to lead to a growing cumulative burden of disease, particularly as more chronic, multi-organ sequelae become apparent with potentially significant ocular implications. COVID-19 ocular manifestations are postulated to be due to three main mechanisms: firstly, there is a dysregulated immune response to the initial infection linked to inflammatory eye disease; secondly, patients with COVID-19 have a greater tendency towards a hypercoagulable state, leading to prothrombotic events; thirdly, patients with severe COVID-19 requiring hospitalisation and are immunosuppressed due to administered corticosteroids or comorbidities such as diabetes mellitus are at an increased risk of secondary infections, including endophthalmitis and rhino-orbital-mucormycosis. Reported ophthalmic associations with COVID-19, therefore, include a range of conditions such as conjunctivitis, scleritis, uveitis, endogenous endophthalmitis, corneal graft rejection, retinal artery and vein occlusion, non-arteritic ischaemic optic neuropathy, glaucoma, neurological and orbital sequelae. With the need to consider telemedicine consultation in view of COVID-19's infectivity, understanding the range of ocular conditions that may present during or following infection is essential to ensure patients are appropriately triaged, with prompt in-person ocular examination for management of potentially sight-threatening and life-threatening diseases.

The Review of Ophthalmic Symptoms in COVID-19

The COVID-19 pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 had a significant impact on the health of the global human population, affecting almost every human organ, including the organ of vision. Research focus on understanding the pathophysiology, identifying symptoms and complications of the disease. Eye-related pathologies are important foci of research due to the potential for direct impact of the virus. Ophthalmologists around the world are reporting various symptoms of eye infections and ocular pathologies associated with SARS-CoV-2. The review of ophthalmic symptoms was conducted to help physicians of various specialties recognize possible ophthalmic manifestations of this viral disease. A literature review was conducted from January 2020 to July 2023 in the PubMed, MEDLINE, Science Direct, Scopus, Scielo and Google Scholar databases. The review of the literature showed that conjunctivitis is the most common ophthalmic symptom observed during the course of COVID-19 and can occur at any stage of the disease. Changes in the eye may result from the direct effect of the virus, immune response, prothrombotic states, comorbidities, and medications used. Symptoms related to the organ of vision can be divided into: changes affecting the protective apparatus of the eye, the anterior eye segment, the posterior eye segment, neuro-ophthalmic, and orbital changes. Ocular symptoms may suggest COVID-19 infection or appear several weeks after recovery. Following COVID-19 vaccinations, a diverse range of ophthalmic symptoms was observed in various locations and at different times, mirroring the ocular symptoms experienced throughout the course of the COVID-19 illness. It is important for physicians of all specialties to be aware of possible potential connections between eye diseases and SARS-CoV-2, in order to effectively diagnose and treat patients.

Incident Ocular Inflammation After COVID-19 Infection in a US Veteran Population

PURPOSE

To investigate whether COVID-19 infection is a risk factor for incident ocular inflammatory disease.

DESIGN

Retrospective case-crossover study.

METHODS

The US Veterans Health Administration Corporate Data Warehouse was used to identify patients with positive COVID-19 testing and incident ocular inflammatory disease between March 2020 and May 2022. The timing of incident ocular inflammation and COVID-19 testing was assessed for each participant to determine whether positive COVID-19 testing occurred 0-60 days prior to incident ocular inflammation diagnosis (risk period) or 15-75 days after incident ocular inflammation diagnosis (control period). The main outcome measure was the odds of positive COVID-19 testing in the risk period versus control period.

RESULTS

Of the 1006 patients with incident ocular inflammation and a positive COVID-19 test in the study period, the age mean ± standard deviation was 62.6 ± 9.8 years and 840 (83%) were male. The odds of COVID-19 exposure was higher in the risk than control period (odds ratio [OR], 1.56; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.04-2.36; P = 0.03). Ocular inflammation was more likely to be bilateral in the risk period (OR, 3.97; 95% CI, 1.01-23.01; P = 0.03). Other ocular features and demographic characteristics were similar in the risk and control periods. Most cases of ocular inflammation were quiescent at the most recent eye examination.

CONCLUSIONS

Incident ocular inflammation is associated with COVID-19 infection, but the increased risk is small, and the ocular inflammation is typically acute.