A Comprehensive Comparative Study for the Authentication of the Kadsura Crude Drug

Authentication of Marantodes pumilum (Blume) Kuntze: A Systematic Review

Botanical drug products consist of complex phytochemical constituents that vary based on various factors that substantially produce different pharmacological activities and possible side effects. Marantodes pumilum (Blume) Kuntze (Primulaceae) is one of the most popular Malay traditional botanical drugs and widely recognized for its medicinal use. Many studies have been conducted focusing on the identification of bioactive substances, pharmacological and toxicological activities in its specific varieties but less comprehensive study on M. pumilum authentication. Lack of quality control (QC) measurement assessment may cause different quality issues on M. pumilum containing products like adulteration by pharmaceutical substances, substitution, contamination, misidentification with toxic plant species, which may be detrimental to consumers' health and safety. This systematic literature review aims to provide an overview of the current scenario on the quality control of botanical drug products as determined by pharmacopoeia requirements specifically for M. pumilum authentication or identification. A systematic search for peer-reviewed publications to document literature search for M. pumilum authentication was performed using four electronic databases: Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus and ScienceDirect for related studies from January 2010 to December 2021. The research studies published in English and related articles for identification or authentication of M. pumilum were the main inclusion criteria in this review. A total 122 articles were identified, whereby 33 articles met the inclusion criteria. Macroscopy, microscopy, chemical fingerprinting techniques using chromatography, spectroscopy and hyphenated techniques, and genetic-based fingerprinting using DNA barcoding method have been used to identify M. pumilum and to distinguish between different varieties and plant parts. The study concluded that a combination of approaches is necessary for authenticating botanical drug substances and products containing M. pumilum to assure the quality, safety, and efficacy of marketed botanical drug products, particularly those with therapeutic claims.

RAD-Seq and Ecological Niche Reveal Genetic Diversity, Phylogeny, and Geographic Distribution of Kadsura interior and Its Closely Related Species

Most plants of Kadsura have economic value and medicinal application. Among them, K. interior and its closely related species have been demonstrated to have definite efficacy. However, the taxonomy and phylogenetic relationship of Kadsura in terms of morphology and commonly used gene regions remain controversial, which adversely affects its rational application. In this study, a total of 107 individuals of K. interior, K. heteroclita, K. longipedunculata, K. oblongifolia, and K. coccinea were studied from the perspectives of genetic diversity, phylogeny, and ecology via single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) developed through restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (RAD-seq). Based on these SNPs, the genetic diversity, phylogenetic reconstruction, and population genetic structure were analyzed. Subsequently, divergence time estimation and differentiation scenario simulation were performed. Meanwhile, according to the species distribution records and bioclimatic variables, the Last Glacial Maximum and current potential distributions of five species were constructed, and the main ecological factors affecting the distribution of different species were extracted. The F ST calculated showed that there was a moderate degree of differentiation among K. heteroclita, K. longipedunculata, and K. oblongifolia, and there was a high degree of genetic differentiation between K. interior and the above species. The phylogenetic tree indicated that each of the species was monophyletic. The results of population genetic structure and divergence scenario simulation and D-statistics showed that there were admixture and gene flow among K. heteroclita, K. longipedunculata, and K. oblongifolia. The results of ecological niche modeling indicated that the distribution areas and the bioclimatic variables affecting the distribution of K. interior and its related species were different. This study explored the differences in the genetic divergence and geographical distribution patterns of K. interior and its related species, clarifying the uniqueness of K. interior compared to its relatives and providing a reference for their rational application in the future.

Comparison of blood tonic efficacy and chemical constituents of Kadsura interior A.C. Smith and its closely related species

BACKGROUND

The stems of Kadsura interior A. C. Smith are used as traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) Kadsurae Caulis, with the traditional efficacy of tonifying and invigorating the blood, therefore being favored to treat blood deficiency (BD) widely. However, the stems of K. interior and its closely related species are morphologically similar and they may readily be misused as Kadsurae Caulis, thus likely to exert negative effects on clinical efficacy and clinical medication safety.

METHODS

Firstly, blood tonic efficacies of the stems of K. interior (KIS) and its closely related species were compared using BD mouse model induced by 1-acetyl-2-phenylhydrazine (APH) and cyclophosphamide (CTX). Secondly, the chemical constituents from the stems of K. interior and its closely related species were evaluated and compared using a plant metabolomics approach. Plant metabolomics in this study aims at discovering differential metabolites and comprehensively assessing the chemical constituents by combining state-of-the-art high-resolution UPLC-Q/TOF-MS/MS technique and multivariate data analysis. Finally, based on the pharmacological data and the chemical constituents in UPLC-Q/TOF-MS fingerprints, the potential blood tonic active markers were screened by the spectrum-effect relationship analysis and quantified by UPLC-UV-DAD.

RESULTS

The ethanol extract of the stems of K. interior significantly increased the levels of hematocrit (HCT), hemoglobin (HGB), and red blood cells (RBC) in BD mice. In addition, it significantly increased the serum levels of interleukin 3 (IL-3), granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), and macrophage-stimulating factor (M-CSF) in BD mice (P < 0.01). The blood tonic efficacy of the stems of K. interior was superior to those of its closely related species, especially at the dose of 200 mg/kg. Six differential compounds in the stems of K. interior were screened out to distinguish it from its closely related species. In combination with the results of the spectrum-effect relationship analysis, heteroclitin D, interiorin C, and heteroclitin G were identified as potential bioactive markers. The contents of heteroclitin D and heteroclitin G in the freeze-dried powder of KIS were 15.90 and 3.74 μg/mg.

CONCLUSIONS

This study illustrated the differences in the blood tonic efficacies and the chemical constituents of the stems of K. interior and its closely related species, and pinpointed the potential bioactive markers of K. interior.

Comparative study of the photo‑protective and anti‑melanogenic properties of gomisin D, J and O

Skin cancer is the most common human malignancy worldwide and solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation is known to serve an important role in its pathogenesis. Natural candidate compounds with antioxidant, photoprotective and anti-melanogenic effects were investigated against the background of skin photoprotective and anti-melanogenic properties. Gomisin D, J and O are dibenzocyclooctadiene lignans present in Kadsura medicinal plants and possess several pharmacological activities. In this study, the functions and mechanisms underlying the effects of gomisin D, J and O in UVA-and UVB-irradiated keratinocytes and α-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH)-stimulated melanocytes were explored. Following UVA and UVB irradiation, keratinocytes were treated with gomisin D, J and O, and keratinocyte viability, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release, intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and apoptosis were examined. The results demonstrated that gomisin D and J improved keratinocyte viability and reduced LDH release under UVA and UVB irradiation. Intracellular ROS production induced by UVA and UVB irradiation was suppressed by gomisin D and J. In addition, Annexin V and TUNEL staining analysis indicated that gomisin D and J have significant anti-apoptotic effects on UVA-and UVB-irradiated keratinocytes. After α-MSH stimulation, melanocytes were treated with gomisin D, J and O, and the changes in melanocyte viability, intracellular melanin content, intracellular tyrosinase activity, and mechanisms underlying these changes were examined. Gomisin D markedly inhibited the α-MSH-induced increase in intracellular melanin content and tyrosinase activity. Mechanistically, gomisin D reduced the protein and mRNA expression levels of microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF), tyrosinase, tyrosinase-related protein (TRP)-1 and TRP-2 in α-MSH-stimulated melanocytes. In addition, gomisin D markedly downregulated α-MSH-induced phosphorylation of protein kinase A and cAMP response element binding protein, which are known to be present upstream of the MITF, tyrosinase, TRP-1 and TRP-2 genes. Overall, gomisin D has photoprotective and anti-melanogenic effects; these findings provide a basis for the production of potential brightening and photoprotective agents using natural compounds such as gomisin D.

A Comparative Study on Photo-Protective and Anti-Melanogenic Properties of Different Kadsura coccinea Extracts

Kadsura coccinea (KC), a beneficial plant for human health, has been used for centuries in China, Thailand, and Korea in folk medicine and food. There is evidence supporting the biological effects of highly bioactive ingredients in KC such as lignans, triterpenoids, flavonoids, phenolic acids, steroids, and amino acids. In this study, we aimed to explore the effects, functions, and mechanisms of the extracts from KC root (KCR), stem (KCS), leaf (KCL), and fruit (KCF) in UVA and UVB-irradiated keratinocytes and α-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH)-stimulated melanocytes. First, the total polyphenol and flavonoid contents of KCR, KCS, KCL, and KCF and their radical scavenging activities were investigated. These parameters were found to be in the following order: KCL > KCR > KCS > KCF. UVA and UVB-irradiated keratinocytes were treated with KCR, KCS, KCL, and KCF, and keratinocyte viability, LDH release, intracellular ROS production, and apoptosis were examined. Our results demonstrated that KC extracts improved keratinocyte viability and reduced LDH release, intracellular ROS production, and apoptosis in the presence UVA and UVB irradiation. The overall photoprotective activity of the KC extracts was confirmed in the following order: KCL > KCR > KCS > KCF. Moreover, KC extracts significantly decreased the intracellular melanin content and tyrosinase activity in α-MSH-stimulated melanocytes. Mechanistically, KC extracts reduced the protein and mRNA expression levels of tyrosinase, tyrosinase-related protein-1 (TRP-1), and tyrosinase-related protein-2 (TRP-2) in α-MSH-stimulated melanocytes. In addition, these extracts markedly downregulated myophthalmosis-related transcription factor expression and cAMP-related binding protein phosphorylation, which is upstream of the regulation of Tyrosinase, TRP-1, and TRP-2. The overall anti-melanogenic activity of the KC extracts was established in the following order. KCL > KCR > KCS > KCF. Overall, the KC extracts exert photoprotective and anti-melanogenic effects, providing a basis for developing potential skin-whitening and photoprotective agents.