Trends in the Immunomodulatory Effects of Cordyceps militaris: Total Extracts, Polysaccharides and Cordycepin

Decoding the difference of four species of Cordyceps based on polysaccharides and immunomodulation activity

Nucleosides and polysaccharides are the main bioactive ingredients of Cordyceps genus. Nucleosides shows significant differences in different Cordyceps species. However, the differences of polysaccharides have not been decoded. Here, the structure characters of polysaccharides including molecular weight (Mw) distribution, compositional monosaccharides and glycosidic linkage types were compared in C. sinensis (CS), C. militaris (CM), silkworm-hosted C. militaris (SCM) and Cordyceps fermented products (CSF). Compositional monosaccharides including mannose, glucose and galactose, and 1,4-Glcp glycosidic linkage were found abundant in Cordyceps species. Chemometric analysis showed that Cordyceps exhibit significant differences in structural information especially glycosidic linkage types. Besides, polysaccharides in CS and CSF-4 had obviously strong capacity of stimulating phagocytic, NO production and cytokines secretion. Gray relational analysis and Pearson correlation analysis were performed to further investigate the relationship between key polysaccharide structure and immunomodulatory activities. The results indicated that polysaccharides with relatively large number of 1, 4-Glcp and Mw in range of 7.16 × 106 Da-7.99 × 107 Da and 1.43 × 104 D-6.94 × 105 Da probably contributed to its immunomodulatory activities. The chemical and biological evaluation of natural and various cultured cordyceps in this study is useful for understanding and regulating the quality of cultured Cordyceps.

Preparation and Characterization of a Novel Magnetic Molecularly Imprinted Polymer Capable of Isolating and Purifying Cordycepin from a Submerged Culture of the Caterpillar Medicinal Mushroom Cordyceps militaris (Ascomycetes)

In this work, magnetic molecularly imprinted polymer (MMIP) capable of selectively recognizing and adsorbing cordycepin was prepared. The MMIP was prepared using cordycepin as the template molecule, methacrylic acid and acrylamide as the functional monomer and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate as the crosslinker. The MMIP was analyzed using various techniques including transmission electron microscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, vibrating sample magnetometer and x-ray diffraction. The adsorption properties of MMIP were subsequently investigated, including adsorption isotherms, kinetics, selectivity, and reusability. In an aqueous solution, the maximum theoretical adsorption of MMIP was 35.806 mg/g. Finally, two practical applications of MMIP were studied. Our results showed that MMIP was able to increase the purity of cordycepin in the fermentation broth of Cordyceps militaris by 5.46 times and, using in situ isolation techniques, MMIP was able to increase the total cordycepin content obtained from liquid fermentation of C. militaris by 33.41%. These results demonstrated that these MMIPs exhibit excellent magnetic properties and possess specific adsorption capability for cordycepin, enabling rapid separation. They offer advantages such as cost-effectiveness, high specificity, and recyclability.

Polysaccharides targeting autophagy to alleviate metabolic syndrome

Metabolic syndrome is a prevalent non-communicable disease characterized by central obesity, insulin resistance, hypertension, hyperglycemia, and hyperlipidemia. Epidemiological statistics indicate that one-third of the world's population is affected by metabolic syndrome. Unfortunately, owing to complicated pathogenesis and limited pharmacological options, the growing prevalence of metabolic syndrome threatens human health worldwide. Autophagy is an intracellular degradation mechanism that involves the degradation of unfolded or aggregated proteins and damaged cellular organelles, thereby maintaining metabolic homeostasis. Increasing evidence indicates that dysfunctional autophagy is closely associated with the development of metabolic syndrome, making it an attractive therapeutic target. Furthermore, a growing number of plant-derived polysaccharides have been shown to regulate autophagy, thereby alleviating metabolic syndrome, such as Astragalus polysaccharides, Laminaria japonica polysaccharides, Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides and Lycium barbarum polysaccharides. In this review, we summarize recent advances in the discovery of autophagy modulators of plant polysaccharides for the treatment of metabolic syndrome, with the aim of providing precursor compounds for the development of new therapeutic agents. Additionally, we look forward to seeing more diseases being treated with plant polysaccharides by regulating autophagy, as well as the discovery of more intricate mechanisms that govern autophagy.

Immunomodulation and Protective Effects of Cordyceps militaris Extract Against Candida albicans Infection in Galleria mellonella Larvae

Cordyceps militaris-derived formulations are currently used for multiple purposes because of their medical properties, especially immune system modulation. This study analyzes the inhibitory effects of C. militaris aqueous extract on Candida albicans infections and the immune response in larvae of the greater wax moth Galleria mellonella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). Larvae exhibited melanization within 1 h of being infected with C. albicans inoculum at a concentration of 106 cells/larvae, and died within 24 h from a lethal dose. Aqueous extract of C. militaris proved to be nontoxic at concentrations of 0.25 and 0.125 mg/larvae, and had the greatest ability to prolong the survival of larvae infected with a sublethal dose of C. albicans at a concentration of 105 cells/larvae. Moreover, the number of hemocytes in the hemolymph of G. mellonella increased after infection with C. albicans and treatment with the aqueous extract of C. militaris at 1, 24, and 48 h by 1.21 × 107, 1.23 × 107, and 1.4 × 107 cells/100 µL, respectively. The highest number of hemocytes was recorded after treatment of infected G. mellonella with the extract for 48 h. Transcriptional upregulation of the immune system was observed in certain antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), showing that the relative expression of galiomicin, gallerimycin, and lysozyme genes were upregulated as early as 1 h after infection. Therefore, we conclude that C. militaris aqueous extract can modulate the immune system of G. mellonella and protect against infection from C. albicans.

Cordyceps militaris fruit body activates myeloid dendritic cells via a Dectin-1-mediated pathway

Cordyceps militaris, an entomopathogenic fungus, has been traditionally used in East Asian medicine. Recent research indicates that the fruit bodies of C. militaris are rich in bioactive compounds, such as polysaccharides and nucleosides, which may offer health benefits. However, the specific components responsible for its immunostimulatory effects and the mechanisms involved remain unclear. This study explored the immunomodulatory activity of a fruit body extract from C. militaris, named Ryukyu-kaso (RK), and examined the effect of the β-glucan receptor Dectin-1 on bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs). Our results demonstrated that RK, which contains 1,3-β-glucan, effectively stimulated BMDCs to secrete pro-inflammatory and immunoregulatory cytokines and upregulated surface markers indicative of maturation and activation. Notably, these immunostimulatory effects were completely absent in BMDCs derived from Dectin-1-knockout mice, confirming that Dectin-1 is crucial for RK-induced immunomodulation. These findings provide new insights into the immunostimulatory mechanisms of C. militaris and underscore the potential of RK as a natural immunomodulatory agent for various therapeutic applications.

Unlocking Fungal Potential: The CRISPR-Cas System as a Strategy for Secondary Metabolite Discovery

Natural products (NPs) are crucial for the development of novel antibiotics, anticancer agents, and immunosuppressants. To highlight the ability of fungi to produce structurally diverse NPs, this article focuses on the impact of genome mining and CRISPR-Cas9 technology in uncovering and manipulating the biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) responsible for NP synthesis. The CRISPR-Cas9 system, originally identified as a bacterial adaptive immune mechanism, has been adapted for precise genome editing in fungi, enabling targeted modifications, such as gene deletions, insertions, and transcription modulation, without altering the genomic sequence. This review elaborates on various CRISPR-Cas9 systems used in fungi, notably the Streptococcus pyogenes type II Cas9 system, and explores advancements in different Cas proteins for fungal genome editing. This review discusses the methodologies employed in CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing of fungi, including guide RNA design, delivery methods, and verification of edited strains. The application of CRISPR-Cas9 has led to enhanced production of secondary metabolites in filamentous fungi, showcasing the potential of this system in biotechnology, medical mycology, and plant pathology. Moreover, this article emphasizes the integration of multi-omics data (genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics) to validate CRISPR-Cas9 editing effects in fungi. This comprehensive approach aids in understanding molecular changes, identifying off-target effects, and optimizing the editing protocols. Statistical and machine learning techniques are also crucial for analyzing multi-omics data, enabling the development of predictive models and identification of key molecular pathways affected by CRISPR-Cas9 editing. In conclusion, CRISPR-Cas9 technology is a powerful tool for exploring fungal NPs with the potential to accelerate the discovery of novel bioactive compounds. The integration of CRISPR-Cas9 with multi-omics approaches significantly enhances our ability to understand and manipulate fungal genomes for the production of valuable secondary metabolites and for promising new applications in medicine and industry.

Cordyceps Polysaccharides: A Review of Their Immunomodulatory Effects

Cordyceps primarily consists of ascomycetes, a parasitic fungus that infects insects and arthropods. Recently, Cordyceps has been shown to manifest a diverse range of pharmacological activities, rendering it applicable for the treatment and mitigation of various diseases, such as diabetes, acute liver injury, and colitis. Many active constituents have been identified from Cordyceps sinensis, including cordycepin, adenosine, sterols, and polysaccharides. Polysaccharides constitute a primary active component of Cordyceps, exhibiting immunomodulatory effects. We searched the Web of Science database with the keywords of cordyceps, polysaccharide, and immune modulation; collected related studies from 2004 to 2024; and eliminated articles with low influence and workload. A review of the research advancements regarding the immunomodulatory effects of Cordyceps polysaccharides was conducted with the aim of furnishing valuable reference information. Research indicates that polysaccharides exhibiting immunomodulatory activity are predominantly sourced from Cordyceps sinensis and Cordyceps militaris. Immunological experimental results demonstrate that Cordyceps polysaccharides can augment the activities of macrophages, lymphocytes, and dendritic cells while fostering the expression of immune-active substances such as cytokines and chemokines. Furthermore, animal experiments have substantiated the immunomodulatory effects of Cordyceps polysaccharides. These effects encompass ameliorating immune suppression induced by drugs or radiation, enhancing immune organ indices, elevating the expression of immunoreactive substances, and mitigating immune evasion prompted by tumors. In conclusion, Cordyceps polysaccharides exhibit significant immunomodulatory activity and merit further investigation.

Core microbes in Cordyceps militaris sclerotia and their nitrogen metabolism-related ecological functions

Cordyceps militaris infects insects and forms sclerotia within the insect remains, establishing insect-microbe complexes. Here, C. militaris sclerotia samples from a single location in China over a 5-year period were subjected to high-throughput DNA sequencing, and the core microbes (which were stably enriched in the sclerotia over the 5 years) were identified. Next, seven bacterial strains were isolated from the C. militaris sclerotia, their biochemical characteristics were assessed, and they were co-cultured with C. militaris to study their effects on C. militaris metabolite production and biomass. Furthermore, the effects of NH4, NO3, and peptone media on C. militaris were compared. The results showed that Rhodococcus, Phyllobacterium, Pseudomonas, Achromobacter, Ensifer, Stenotrophomonas, Sphingobacterium, Variovorax, and Acinetobacter were the core microbes. Although co-culture of C. militaris with the seven bacterial strains isolated from the sclerotia did not directly increase the cordycepin level, they all had NO3 reduction ability, and four had urea decomposition ability. Meanwhile, C. militaris in NH4 medium had an increased cordycepin level compared to C. militaris in the other two media. From this, we inferred that bacteria in the sclerotia can convert NO3 to NH4, and then cordycepin is produced using NH4, which was confirmed by RNA-seq and real-time fluorescence quantitative PCR. Thus, bacteria in the sclerotia may indirectly affect the C. militaris metabolite production by regulating nitrogen metabolism. In summary, there are stable core microbes in the C. militaris sclerotia, and they may directly and indirectly affect the growth and metabolite production of C. militaris.

IMPORTANCE

The model Cordyceps species Cordyceps militaris is rich in therapeutic compounds. It has recently been demonstrated that symbiotic microbes in sclerotia affect Cordyceps' growth, development, and secondary metabolite production. In this study, core microbes were identified based on C. militaris sclerotia samples obtained from the same site over 5 years. Additionally, bacterial strains isolated from C. militaris sclerotia were found to affect metabolite production and nitrogen utilization, based on functional tests. Moreover, based on the bacterial nitrogen metabolism capacity in the sclerotia and its influence on C. militaris metabolite production, we deduced that bacteria in the sclerotia can indirectly affect C. militaris metabolite production by regulating nitrogen metabolism. This is the first report on how bacteria in the sclerotia affect C. militaris metabolite production from the perspective of the nitrogen cycle. The results increase our understanding of microbial functions in C. militaris sclerotia.

Cordyceps militaris Grown on Germinated Rhynchosia nulubilis (GRC) Encapsulated in Chitosan Nanoparticle (GCN) Suppresses Particulate Matter (PM)-Induced Lung Inflammation in Mice

Cordyceps militaris grown on germinated Rhynchosia nulubilis (GRC) exerts various biological effects, including anti-allergic, anti-inflammatory, and immune-regulatory effects. In this study, we investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of GRC encapsulated in chitosan nanoparticles (CN) against particulate matter (PM)-induced lung inflammation. Optimal CN (CN6) (CHI: TPP w/w ratio of 4:1; TPP pH 2) exhibited a zeta potential of +22.77 mV, suitable for GRC encapsulation. At different GRC concentrations, higher levels (60 and 120 mg/mL) led to increased negative zeta potential, enhancing stability. The optimal GRC concentration for maximum entrapment (31.4 ± 1.35%) and loading efficiency (7.6 ± 0.33%) of GRC encapsulated in CN (GCN) was 8 mg/mL with a diameter of 146.1 ± 54 nm and zeta potential of +30.68. In vivo studies revealed that administering 300 mg/kg of GCN significantly decreased the infiltration of macrophages and T cells in the lung tissues of PM-treated mice, as shown by immunohistochemical analysis of CD4 and F4/80 markers. Additionally, GCN ameliorated PM-induced lung tissue damage, inflammatory cell infiltration, and alveolar septal hypertrophy. GCN also decreased total cells and neutrophils, showing notable anti-inflammatory effects in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) from PM-exposed mice, compared to GRC. Next the anti-inflammatory properties of GCN were further explored in PM- and LPS-exposed RAW264.7 cells; it significantly reduced PM- and LPS-induced cell death, NO production, and levels of inflammatory cytokine mRNAs (IL-1β, IL-6, and COX-2). GCN also suppressed NF-κB/MAPK signaling pathways by reducing levels of p-NF-κB, p-ERK, and p-c-Jun proteins, indicating its potential in managing PM-related inflammatory lung disease. Furthermore, GCN significantly reduced PM- and LPS-induced ROS production. The enhanced bioavailability of GRC components was demonstrated by an increase in fluorescence intensity in the intestinal absorption study using FITC-GCN. Our data indicated that GCN exhibited enhanced bioavailability and potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects in cells and in vivo, making it a promising candidate for mitigating PM-induced lung inflammation and oxidative stress.

Nondestructive rapid identification of wild Cordyceps sinensis with portable instrument

INTRODUCTION

Cordyceps sinensis (CS) is a precious medicinal fungus. Wild CS (WCS) and artificial CS (ACS) are destroyed for their identification using traditional methods, which are time consuming and labor-intensive. Therefore, it is crucial to establish a nondestructive identification method to rapidly screen WCS.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to provide technical support for rapid screening of CS and evaluation of its quality. The applicability of the model was improved through model transfer.

METHODS

In this study, continuous wavelet transform was used to analyze the differences in moisture content and active components between WCS and ACS from the perspective of characteristic molecular groups. A portable instrument and a laboratory benchtop instrument were used to determine CS spectra. Partial least squares discrimination analysis was conducted for the identification of WCS and ACS while preserving the original shape of CS. Moreover, improved principal component analysis was utilized to transfer the model between the two types of near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) instruments.

RESULTS

The results demonstrated that three peaks, at 1443, 1941, and 2183 nm, were characteristic absorption peaks. The model based on NIRS could initially provide rapid differentiation between WCS and ACS. At the same time, the accuracy of the external test set was further improved to over 95% through forward transfer.

CONCLUSION

Therefore, this method could be used for rapid screening of WCS and provides technical support for the nondestructive identification of CS and initial assessment of CS quality.

Cordycepin exhibits both antiviral and anti-inflammatory effects against dengue virus infection

Cordycepin, a natural derivative of adenosine from Cordyceps militaris, can inhibit the replication of the dengue virus (DENV). Here, we investigated its antiviral and anti-inflammatory effects in DENV infected cells. Cordycepin significantly inhibited DENV-2 infection, virion production, and viral protein synthesis. It also reduced DENV-induced cytokine/chemokine production, including RANTES, IP-10, IL-6, and TNF-α. Mechanistically, cordycepin targeted the DENV NS5 protein, suppressing RANTES expression and hindering viral replication. Additionally, it inhibited the NF-κB pathway, leading to reduced nuclear translocation and signaling deactivation. PCR array analysis revealed cordycepin's suppression of 46 genes associated with DENV-induced inflammation. These findings highlight cordycepin's dual potential as an antiviral and anti-inflammatory agent against DENV, making it as a promising candidate for dengue treatment, targeting both viral and host factors.

Enhancing cancer immunotherapy using cordycepin and Cordyceps militaris extract to sensitize cancer cells and modulate immune responses

Integrating immunotherapy with natural compounds holds promise in enhancing the immune system's ability to eliminate cancer cells. Cordyceps militaris, a traditional Chinese medicine, emerges as a promising candidate in this regard. This study investigates the effects of cordycepin and C. militaris ethanolic extract (Cm-EE) on sensitizing cancer cells and regulating immune responses against breast cancer (BC) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells. Cordycepin, pentostatin and adenosine were identified in Cm-EE. Cordycepin treatment decreased HLA-ABC-positive cells in pre-treated cancer cells, while Cm-EE increased NKG2D ligand and death receptor expression. Additionally, cordycepin enhanced NKG2D receptor and death ligand expression on CD3-negative effector immune cells, particularly on natural killer (NK) cells, while Cm-EE pre-treatment stimulated IL-2, IL-6, and IL-10 production. Co-culturing cancer cells with effector immune cells during cordycepin or Cm-EE incubation resulted in elevated cancer cell death. These findings highlight the potential of cordycepin and Cm-EE in improving the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy for BC and HCC.

New perspectives on chemokines in hepatocellular carcinoma therapy: a critical pathway for natural products regulation of the tumor microenvironment

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common primary neoplasms of the liver and one of the most common solid tumors in the world. Its global incidence is increasing and it has become the third leading cause of cancer-related deaths. There is growing evidence that chemokines play an important role in the tumor microenvironment, regulating the migration and localization of immune cells in tissues and are critical for the function of the immune system. This review comprehensively analyses the expression and activity of chemokines in the TME of HCC and describes their interrelationship with hepatocarcinogenesis and progression. Special attention is given to the role of chemokine-chemokine receptors in the regulation of immune cell accumulation in the TME. Therapeutic strategies targeting tumor-promoting chemokines or the induction/release of beneficial chemokines are reviewed, highlighting the potential value of natural products in modulating chemokines and their receptors in the treatment of HCC. The in-depth discussion in this paper provides a theoretical basis for the treatment of HCC. It is an important reference for new drug development and clinical research.

Coffee with Cordyceps militaris and Hericium erinaceus Fruiting Bodies as a Source of Essential Bioactive Substances

Drinking coffee is a daily routine for many people. Supplement manufacturers have proposed adding powdered Cordyceps militaris, known for its ergogenic and immunostimulating properties, and Hericium erinaceus, known for its nerve growth factor (NGF)-stimulating properties, to coffee. The aim of this work was to compare the bioactive substances in three types of coffee: machine-brewed, instant, and traditionally brewed, prepared with the addition of H. erinaceus and C. militaris fruiting bodies. The analysis of bioactive substances was performed using AAS and RP-HPLC methods. Among the control samples of coffee, traditionally brewed coffee was the best source of bioelements. Considering the mushroom species tested, the best additional source of Mg, Zn, Cu, Na, K, and Ca was C. militaris. A slightly higher Fe content was determined for H. erinaceus. With the addition of C. militaris, the amounts of 4-feruloylquinic acid (18.6 mg/200 mL) and 3,5-di-caffeoylquinic acid (3.76 mg/200 mL) also increased. In conclusion, the C. militaris species has been proven to be a better source of bioactive substances as a coffee additive in the daily diet. The combination of brewed coffee and the tested mushrooms seems to be the most beneficial in terms of health-promoting effects.

Characterization, Antioxidant Capacity and Protective Effect of Peptides from Cordyceps militaris Cultivated with Tussah Pupa on Oxidative Injured HepG2 Cells

The antioxidant capacity and protective effect of peptides from protein hydrolysate of Cordyceps militaris cultivated with tussah pupa (ECPs) on H2O2-injured HepG2 cells were studied. Results indicated ECP1 (<3 kDa) presented the strongest antioxidant activity compared with other molecular weight peptides. Pretreated with ECPs observably enhanced survival rates and reduced apoptosis rates of HepG2 cells. ECPs treatment decreased the ROS level, MDA content and increased CAT and GSH-Px activities of HepG2 cells. Besides, the morphologies of natural peptides from C. militaris cultivated with tussah pupa (NCP1) and ECP1 were observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Characterization results suggested the structure of NCP1 was changed by enzymatic hydrolysis treatment. Most of hydrophobic and acidic amino acids contents (ACC) in ECP1 were also observably improved by enzymatic hydrolysis. In conclusion, low molecular weight peptides had potential value in the development of cosmetics and health food.

Discovery of Oral AMP-Activated Protein Kinase Activators for Treating Hyperlipidemia

Activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is proposed to alleviate hyperlipidemia. With cordycepin and N6-(2-hydroxyethyl) adenosine (HEA) as lead compounds, a series of adenosine-based derivatives were designed, synthesized, and evaluated on activation of AMPK. Finally, compound V1 was identified as a potent AMPK activator with the lipid-lowering effect. Molecular docking and circular dichroism indicated that V1 exerted its activity by binding to the γ subunit of AMPK. V1 markedly decreased the serum low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in C57BL/6 mice, golden hamsters, and rhesus monkeys. V1 was selected as the clinical compound and concluded Phase 1 clinical trials. A single dose of V1 (2000 mg) increased AMPK activation in human erythrocytes after 5 and 12 h of treatment. RNA sequencing data suggested that V1 downregulated expression of genes involved in regulation of apoptotic process, lipid metabolism, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and inflammatory response in liver by activating AMPK.

Biological characteristics of Cordyceps militaris single mating-type strains

Cordyceps militaris has been extensively cultivated as a model cordyceps species for commercial purposes. Nevertheless, the problems related to strain degeneration and breeding technologies remain unresolved. This study assessed the physiology and fertility traits of six C. militaris strains with distinct origins and characteristics, focusing on single mating-type strains. The results demonstrated that the three identified strains (CMDB01, CMSY01, and CMJB02) were single mating-type possessing only one mating-type gene (MAT1-1). In contrast, the other three strains (CMXF07, CMXF09, and CMMS05) were the dual mating type. The MAT1-1 strains sourced from CMDB01, CMSY01, and CMJB02 consistently produced sporocarps but failed to generate ascospores. However, when paired with MAT1-2 strains, the MAT1-1 strains with slender fruiting bodies and normal morphology were fertile. The hyphal growth rate of single mating-type strains (CMDB01, CMSY01, and CMJB02) typically surpassed that of dual mating-type strains (CMXF07, CMXF09, and CMMS05). The growth rates of MAT1-2 and MAT1-1 strains were proportional to their ratios, such that a single mating-type strain with a higher ratio exhibited an increased growth rate. As C. militaris matured, the adenosine content decreased. In summary, the C. militaris strains that consistently produce sporocarps and have a single mating type are highly promising for production and breeding.

Cordyceps militaris Extract and Cordycepin Alleviate Oxidative Stress, Modulate Gut Microbiota and Ameliorate Intestinal Damage in LPS-Induced Piglets

Cordycepin is considered a major bioactive component in Cordyceps militaris extract. This study was performed to evaluate the ameliorative effect of Cordyceps militaris extract (CME) and cordycepin (CPN) supplementation on intestinal damage in LPS-challenged piglets. The results showed that CPN or CME supplementation significantly increased the villus height (p < 0.01) and villus height/crypt depth ratio (p < 0.05) in the jejunum and ileum of piglets with LPS-induced intestinal inflammation. Meanwhile, CPN or CME supplementation alleviated oxidative stress and inflammatory responses by reducing the levels of MDA (p < 0.05) and pro-inflammatory cytokines in the serum. Additionally, supplementation with CPN or CME modulated the structure of the intestinal microbiota by enriching short-chain fatty acid-producing bacteria, and increased the level of butyrate (p < 0.05). The RNA-seq results demonstrated that CME or CPN altered the complement and coagulation-cascade-related genes (p < 0.05), including upregulating gene KLKB1 while downregulating the genes CFD, F2RL2, CFB, C4BPA, F7, C4BPB, CFH, C3 and PROS1, which regulate the complement activation involved in inflammatory and immune responses. Correlation analysis further demonstrated the potential relation between the gut microbiota and intestinal inflammation, oxidative stress, and butyrate in piglets. In conclusion, CPN or CME supplementation might inhibit LPS-induced inflammation and oxidative stress by modulating the intestinal microbiota and its metabolite butyrate in piglets.

Neuroprotective effects of cordycepin on MPTP-induced Parkinson's disease mice via suppressing PI3K/AKT/mTOR and MAPK-mediated neuroinflammation

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a prevalent progressive and multifactorial neurodegenerative disorder. Cordycepin is known to exhibit antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antioxidative stress, and neuroprotective effects; however, few studies have explored the neuroprotective mechanism of cordycepin in PD. Using a 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced mouse model, we investigated the impact of cordycepin on PD and its underlying molecular mechanisms. The findings indicated that cordycepin significantly mitigated MPTP-induced behavior disorder and neuroapoptosis, diminished the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the striatum-substantia nigra pathway, elevated striatal monoamine levels and its metabolites, and inhibited the polarization of microglia and the expression of pro-inflammatory factors. Subsequent proteomic and phosphoproteomic analyses revealed the involvement of the MAPK, mTOR, and PI3K/AKT signaling pathways in the protective mechanism of cordycepin. Cordycepin treatment inhibited the activation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway and enhanced the expression of autophagy proteins in the striatum and substantia nigra. We also demonstrated the in vivo inhibition of the ERK/JNK signaling pathway by cordycepin treatment. In summary, our investigation reveals that cordycepin exerts neuroprotective effects against PD by promoting autophagy and suppressing neuroinflammation and neuronal apoptosis by inhibiting the PI3K/AKT/mTOR and ERK/JNK signaling pathways. This finding highlights the favorable characteristics of cordycepin in neuroprotection and provides novel molecular insights into the neuroprotective role of natural products in PD.

A review on polysaccharide biosynthesis in Cordyceps militaris

Cordyceps militaris (C. militaris) is an edible parasitic fungus with medicinal properties. Its bioactive polysaccharides are structurally diverse and exhibit various metabolic and biological activities, including antitumor, hypoglycemic, antioxidant, hypolipidemic, anti-inflammatory, immunostimulatory, and anti-atherosclerotic effects. These properties make C. militaris-derived polysaccharides a promising candidate for future development. Recent advancements in microbial fermentation technology have enabled successful laboratory cultivation and extraction of these polysaccharides. These polysaccharides are structurally diverse and exhibit various biological activities, such as immunostimulatory, antioxidant, antitumor, hypolipidemic, and anti-atherosclerotic effects. This review aims to summarize the structure and production mechanisms of polysaccharides from C. militaris, covering extraction methods, key genes and pathways involved in biosynthesis, and fermentation factors that influence yield and activity. Furthermore, the future potential and challenges of utilizing polysaccharides in the development of health foods and pharmaceuticals are addressed. This review serves as a valuable reference in the fields of food and medicine, and provides a theoretical foundation for the study of polysaccharides.

Antitumor Mechanism and Therapeutic Potential of Cordycepin Derivatives

Cordycepin has good antitumor activity, but its clinical application is limited due to the easy deamination of N6 in structure. In this study, a large lipolysis group was introduced at the cordycepin N6 to improve the problem, cordycepin derivatives (3a-4c) were synthesized, and biological evaluation of compounds was studied. In this study, the vitro antitumor activity of the compounds against MCF7 cells, HepG2 cells and SGC-7901 cells was evaluated by MTT assay. In the results, compound 4a showed the most obvious inhibitory effect on MCF7 cells with an IC50 value of 27.57 ± 0.52 μM, which was much lower than cordycepin. Compound 4a showed high selectivity between MCF7 and normal MCF-10A cells. Further biological evaluation showed that compound 4a promoted apoptosis and blocked the cell cycle in the G0/G1 phase. Then, Western Blot was used to detect related apoptotic proteins. It was found that Compound 4a could down-regulate the expression of Bcl-2 protein and up-regulate the expression of p53, Bax, Caspase-3 and Caspase-9 proteins. The mitochondrial membrane potential decreased continuously and the positive expression rate decreased. It was speculated that compound 4a induced the apoptosis of MCF7 cells through the mitochondrial pathway.

Hot Water Extract of the Caterpillar Medicinal Mushroom Cordyceps militaris (Ascomycetes) Fruiting Body Activates Myeloid Dendritic Cells through A Dectin-1-Mediated Pathway

The traditional use of Cordyceps militaris, an entomopathogenic fungus, in East Asian medicine has been well documented. Our previous study revealed that the fruiting body powder of C. militaris, referred to as Ryukyu-kaso, contains 1,3-β-glucan and stimulates bone marrow-derived dendritic cells via a dectin-1-dependent pathway. However, the immunomodulatory effects of soluble 1,3-β-glucan in Ryukyu-kaso and the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the immunostimulatory effects of the hot water extract of C. militaris fruiting body (RK-HWE) on bone marrow-derived dendritic cells and the involvement of the β-glucan receptor dectin-1. Our findings revealed that the hot water extract of C. militaris fruiting body contains soluble 1,3-β-glucan and potently induces bone marrow-derived dendritic cells to secrete both pro-inflammatory and immunoregulatory cytokines. Compared with the control, RK-HWE significantly increased the secretion of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-6, interfer-on-в, IL-12p70, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (all ,i>p < 0.05), with TNF-α secretion increasing from 7.82 ± 1.57 (control) to 403.7 ± 59.7 pg/mL with (RK-HWE; p < 0.001). Notably, these immunostimulatory effects of RK-HWE were completely abolished in bone marrow-derived dendritic cells derived from dectin-1-knockout mice (p < 0.001, all cytokines), suggesting that dectin-1 is essential for immunomodulation induced by RK-HWE. These findings provide novel insights into the mechanisms underlying the immunostimulatory effects of RK-HWE and highlight its potential as a natural immunomodulatory agent for various therapeutic applications.

Cordyceps militaris: A Comprehensive Study on Laboratory Cultivation and Anticancer Potential in Dalton's Ascites Lymphoma Tumor Model

BACKGROUND

Cancer, a predominant cause of mortality, poses a formidable challenge in our pursuit of elevating life expectancy. Throughout history, individuals have sought natural remedies with minimal side effects as an appealing substitute for chemotherapeutic drugs. One such remedy is Cordyceps militaris, a renowned medicinal mushroom deeply entrenched in Asian ethnomedicine. Revered for its rejuvenating and curative attributes, it relied upon for ages.

OBJECTIVE

The mushroom's soaring demand outpaced natural availability, necessitating controlled laboratory cultivation as the core focus and exploring the potential of methanolic extracts from harvested Cordyceps militaris fruiting bodies against Dalton's Lymphoma Ascites (DLA) cells in vitro, with a specific emphasis on its anticancer traits.

METHODS

For cultivation, we employed a diverse range of rice substrates, among which bora rice showed promising growth of C. militaris fruiting bodies. To assess DLA cell cytotoxicity, several assays, including trypan blue exclusion assay, MTT assay, and LDH assay, were employed at different time points (24-96 h), which provided valuable insights on DLA cell viability and proliferation, shedding light on its therapeutic potential against cancer.

RESULTS

Our studies unveiled that methanolic extract prompts apoptosis in DLA cells via AO/EB dual staining, manifesting consistent apoptosis indicators such as membrane blebbing, chromatin condensation, nuclei fragmentation, and cellular shrinkage at 48-96 h of treatment. Furthermore, these striking repercussions of apoptosis were comprehended by an in silico approach having molecular docking simulation against antiapoptotic proteins like BCL-2, BCL-XL, MCL-1, BFL-1 & HSP100.

CONCLUSION

Methanolic C. militaris extracts exhibited cytotoxicity and apoptotic alterations in DLA cells.

Unique Bioactives from Zombie Fungus (Cordyceps) as Promising Multitargeted Neuroprotective Agents

Cordyceps, also known as "zombie fungus", is a non-poisonous mushroom that parasitizes insects for growth and development by manipulating the host system in a way that makes the victim behave like a "zombie". These species produce promising bioactive metabolites, like adenosine, β-glucans, cordycepin, and ergosterol. Cordyceps has been used in traditional medicine due to its immense health benefits, as it boosts stamina, appetite, immunity, longevity, libido, memory, and sleep. Neuronal loss is the typical feature of neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) (Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), multiple sclerosis (MS), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)) and neurotrauma. Both these conditions share common pathophysiological features, like oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and glutamatergic excitotoxicity. Cordyceps bioactives (adenosine, N6-(2-hydroxyethyl)-adenosine, ergosta-7, 9 (11), 22-trien-3β-ol, active peptides, and polysaccharides) exert potential antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic activities and display beneficial effects in the management and/or treatment of neurodegenerative disorders in vitro and in vivo. Although a considerable list of compounds is available from Cordyceps, only a few have been evaluated for their neuroprotective potential and still lack information for clinical trials. In this review, the neuroprotective mechanisms and safety profile of Cordyceps extracts/bioactives have been discussed, which might be helpful in the identification of novel potential therapeutic entities in the future.

Cordycepin remodels the tumor microenvironment of colorectal cancer by down-regulating the expression of PD-L1

PURPOSE

Colorectal cancer, as a common malignant tumor, poses a serious threat to human life. Cordycepin, derived from Cordyceps militaris extract, which was established as a capable inhibitor of tumor growth. Nevertheless, the precise antitumor mechanism of cordycepin in colorectal cancer cells remains elusive.

METHODS

Herein, our initial focus was to explore the tumor-suppressive impact of cordycepin through its influence on various biological functions in murine colorectal cancer cells, conducted by an in vitro setting. First, we investigated the tumor-suppressive effect of cordycepin on the regulation of biological functions in murine colorectal cancer cells in vitro. Furthermore, we evaluated the in vivo antitumor potential of cordycepin using a mouse preclinical tumor model, and further explored the antitumor mechanism.

RESULTS

Our findings revealed that cordycepin effectively inhibit the proliferation, invasion, and migration of murine colon cancer cells. Moreover, there is a substantial reduction in the expression of PD-L1 observed in tumor cells, in response to cordycepin treatment. Collectively, these results demonstrate the significant tumor-suppressive attributes of cordycepin against colorectal cancer. Consequently, our study lays a solid foundation for the potential clinical utilization of cordycepin in cancer therapy.

CONCLUSION

Cordycepin inhibits the biological functions of colorectal cancer cells and suppresses tumor growth by reducing the expression of PD-L1.

The role and mechanism of TCM in the prevention and treatment of infectious diseases

The constant presence of infectious diseases poses an everlasting threat to the entire world. In recent years, there has been an increased attention toward the application of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in the treatment of emerging infectious diseases, as it has played a significant role. The aim of this article is to provide a concise overview of the roles and mechanisms of TCM in treating infectious diseases. TCM possesses the ability to modulate relevant factors, impede signaling pathways, and inhibit microbial growth, thereby exhibiting potent antiviral, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory effects that demonstrate remarkable efficacy against viral and bacterial infections. This article concludes that the comprehensive regulatory features of Chinese herbal medicines, with their various components, targets, and pathways, result in synergistic effects. The significance of Chinese herbal medicines in the context of infectious diseases should not be underestimated; however, it is crucial to also acknowledge their underutilization. This paper presents constructive suggestions regarding the challenges and opportunities faced by Chinese medicines. Particularly, it emphasizes the effectiveness and characteristics of Chinese medicines in the treatment of infectious diseases, specifying how these medicines' active substances can be utilized to target infectious diseases. This perspective is advantageous in facilitating researchers' pharmacological studies on Chinese medicines, focusing on the specific points of action. The mechanism of action of Chinese herbal medicines in the treatment of infectious diseases is comprehensively elucidated in this paper, providing compelling evidence for the superior treatment of infectious diseases through Chinese medicine. This information is favorable for advancing the development of TCM and its potential applications in the field of infectious diseases.

Immunomodulatory Effect of Flammulina rossica Fermentation Extract on Healthy and Immunosuppressed Mice

Flammulina rossica fermentation extract (FREP) was obtained by ethanol precipitation of the fermentation broth. The molecular weight of FREP is 28.52 kDa, and it mainly contains active ingredients such as polysaccharides, proteins, reducing sugars, and 16 amino acids. Among them, the polysaccharides were mannose, glucose, galactose, arabinose, and fucose and possessed β-glycosidic bonds. Furthermore, the immunoregulatory activities of FREP were investigated in vivo. The results demonstrated that FREP could increase the counts of CD4+ T lymphocytes and the ratio of CD4+/CD8+ in a dose-dependent manner in healthy mice. In addition, FREP significantly increased serum cytokines, including IL-2, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, IL-6, IL-1β, INF-γ, C-rection protein, and TNF-α, and promoted splenocyte proliferation in healthy mice. Finally, FREP could restore the counts of white blood cells, red blood cells, secretory immunoglobulin A, and antibody-forming cells and significantly promote the serum haemolysin level in mice treated with cyclophosphamide. The findings indicated that FREP possessed immunoregulatory activity in healthy mice and could improve the immune functions in immunosuppressive mice. Therefore, FREP could be exploited as an immunomodulatory agent and potential immunotherapeutic medicine for patients with inadequate immune function.

Cordyceps militaris polysaccharide alleviates ovalbumin-induced allergic asthma through the Nrf2/HO-1 and NF-κB signaling pathways and regulates the gut microbiota

Polysaccharides, as one of the main types of bioactive components of Cordyceps militaris, have anti-allergic asthma effects. Herein, an ovalbumin-induced allergic asthma mouse model was established to assess the potential mechanisms of the separated and purified Cordyceps militaris polysaccharide (CMP). CMP is an α-pyranose with a molecular weight of 15.94 kDa that consists of Glc, Man, Gal, Xyl, Ara and GlcA in a molar ratio of 81.25:21.96:13.88:3.92:3.58:1.00. CMP improved inflammatory cytokine levels, alleviated the histopathological changes in the lung and intestinal tissues, regulated the expression of mRNA and proteins related to oxidative stress and inflammatory pathways, reversed gut dysbiosis at the phylum and family levels and improved microbiota function in allergic asthma mice. Moreover, it was found that the levels of inflammatory cytokines in lung tissue of mice were significantly correlated with some intestinal microbial communities. Overall, CMP improved oxidative stress and the inflammatory response in allergic asthma mice by regulating the Nrf2/HO-1 and NF-κB signaling pathways, which may be closely correlation with maintaining the stability of the gut microbiota.

Cordycepin mitigates spermatogenic and redox related expression in H2O2-exposed Leydig cells and regulates testicular oxidative apoptotic signalling in aged rats

CONTEXT

Cordycepin (COR), from Cordyceps militaris L., (Cordycipitaceae), is a valuable agent with immense health benefits.

OBJECTIVE

The protective effects of COR in ageing-associated oxidative and apoptosis events in vivo and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)-exposed spermatogenesis gene alterations in TM3 Leydig cells was investigated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into young control (YC), aged control (AC) and COR treated (COR-20) aged groups. COR-20 group received daily doses of COR (20 mg/kg) for 6 months. Cell viability and hormone levels were analysed by MTT [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide] and enzyme immunoassay kits with COR treated at 1, 5, and 10 μg/mL. Oxidative enzymes, spermatogenic, and apoptotic expression in testis tissues were evaluated by Western blotting and real-time RT-PCR.

RESULTS

COR treatment (1, 5, and 10 μg/mL) significantly (p < 0.05 ∼ p < 0.001) inhibited the H₂O₂-induced decrease in the percentage of viable cells (from 63.27% to 71.25%, 85.67% and 93.97%, respectively), and reduced the malondialdehyde (MDA) content (from 4.28 to 3.98, 3.14 and 1.78 nM MDA/mg protein, respectively). Further, the decreased antioxidant enzymes (glutathione-S-transferase mu5, glutathione peroxidase 4 and peroxiredoxin 3), spermatogenesis-related factors (nectin-2 and inhibin-α) and testosterone levels in H₂O₂-exposed TM3 cells were significantly (p < 0.05 ∼ p < 0.001) ameliorated by COR. In aged rats, COR (20 mg/kg) restored the altered enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidative status and attenuated the apoptotic p53 and Bax/Bcl-2 expression significantly (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

COR might be developed as a potential agent against ageing-associated and oxidative stress-induced male infertility.

Immunostimulatory Activity of Cordyceps militaris Fermented with Pediococcus pentosaceus SC11 Isolated from a Salted Small Octopus in Cyclophosphamide-Induced Immunocompromised Mice and Its Inhibitory Activity against SARS-CoV 3CL Protease

In this study, we investigated the immune-enhancing and anti-viral effects of germinated Rhynchosia nulubilis (GRC) fermented with Pediococcus pentosaceus SC11 (GRC-SC11) isolated from a salted small octopus. The cordycepin, β-glucan, and total flavonoid contents increased in GRC after SC11 fermentation. GRC-SC11 inhibits 3CL protease activity in severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV). GRC-SC11 significantly increased thymus and spleen indices in immunocompromised mice. The rate of splenocyte proliferation was higher in GRC-SC11-treated immunocompromised mice than that in GRC-treated immunocompromised mice in the presence or absence of concanavalin A. In addition, GRC-SC11 increased the phagocytic activity and nitric oxide production in immunocompromised mice. The mRNA expression of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), interferon-alpha (IFN-α), and interferon-stimulated gene 15 (ISG15) was up-regulated in GRC-SC11 treated RAW 264.7 macrophages, compared to GRC. Our study indicates that GRC-SC11 might be a potential therapeutic agent for immunocompromised patients who are vulnerable to SARS-CoV infection.

Transcriptomic analysis of the anti-inflammatory effect of Cordyceps militaris extract on acute gouty arthritis

Background: Gouty arthritis (GA) is a common inflammatory disease that causes pain due to the deposition of monosodium urate (MSU) crystals into joints and surrounding tissues. Anti-inflammatory drugs have significant clinical anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects, but they have many side effects. Cordyceps militaris is an edible and medicinal fungus, and its extract (CME) has good anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects. This study aimed to investigate the anti-inflammatory effect of CME on GA and its underlying mechanism.

Methods: The effect of CME on the expression of related inflammatory factors and histopathological changes in the MSU-induced acute inflammatory gout model in rats was studied by ELISA and HE, and its anti-inflammatory mechanism was analyzed by transcriptome combined with RT-qPCR.

Results: CME significantly improved gait scores and joint swelling in GA rats, and reduced MSU-induced inflammatory cell infiltration. CME inhibited MSU-induced inflammatory responses by reducing the levels of pro-inflammatory factors TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and Caspase-1 and increasing the anti-inflammatory factor IL-10. Transcriptome analysis showed that CME significantly altered inflammation-related cytokine pathways, and identified four major genes involved in regulation of inflammation, CCL7, CSF2RB, LIF, and IL-1β. In addition, RT-qPCR was performed to verify these differential genes.

Conclusion: CME significantly alleviated the inflammatory progression of GA and ameliorated the onset of GA. The underlying mechanism may be related to triggering the cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction signaling pathway to inhibit the activation of the inflammasome and regulate the immune system. And it regulates the inflammatory response induced by MSU crystals through the genes CCL7, CSF2RB, and IL-1β.

Network Pharmacology-Based Study on the Active Ingredients and Mechanism of Pan Ji Sheng Traditional Chinese Medicine Formula in the Treatment of Inflammation

Background

Pan Ji Sheng Formula is a Chinese medicine formula that enables heat-free detoxification as well as anti-inflammatory and immune-boosting properties. This formula contains eight herbs. Its underlying mechanism is unknown. The bioactive ingredients were screened in our work, and the mechanism of this formula was investigated.

Methods

Using traditional Chinese medicine systems pharmacology database and analysis platform (TCMSP), ingredients in Pan Ji Sheng Chinese medicine formula were screened, and we selected the main bioactive ingredients for web-based research. The targets of bioactive ingredients are primarily obtained from the SwissTargetPrediction and TCMSP databases, and the text mining method is used. STRING and Cytoscape were then used to examine the protein-protein interaction (PPI) networks. To explore the biological function and related pathways, functional annotation and pathway analysis were performed.

Results

This research discovered 96 bioactive ingredients. Then, 215 potential targets of bioactive ingredients were screened. Through the analysis of the PPI network, we discovered 25 key target genes, which can be described as hub target genes regulated by bioactive ingredients. Bioactive ingredients primarily regulate CASP3, AKT1, JUN, and other proteins. The formula works synergistically to enhance immune response and antiinfection by regulating immune-related pathways, TNF signaling pathways, and apoptosis.

Conclusions

A variety of bioactive ingredients in the formula could play roles in regulating CASP3, AKT1, and other genes in immune, infection, apoptosis, and tumor-related signaling pathways. Our data point the way forward for future studies on the mechanism of action of this formula.

Bioactive constituents of animal-derived traditional Chinese medicinal materials for breast cancer: opportunities and challenges

Breast cancer is globally the most common invasive cancer in women and remains one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths. Surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and endocrine therapy are currently the main treatments for this cancer type. However, some breast cancer patients are prone to drug resistance related to chemotherapy or immunotherapy, resulting in limited treatment efficacy. Consequently, traditional Chinese medicinal materials (TCMMs) as natural products have become an attractive source of novel drugs. In this review, we summarized the current knowledge on the active components of animal-derived TCMMs, including Ophiocordycepssinensis-derived cordycepin, the aqueous and ethanolic extracts of O.sinensis, norcantharidin (NCTD), Chansu, bee venom, deer antlers, Ostreagigas, and scorpion venom, with reference to marked anti-breast cancer effects due to regulating cell cycle arrest, proliferation, apoptosis, metastasis, and drug resistance. In future studies, the underlying mechanisms for the antitumor effects of these components need to be further investigated by utilizing multi-omics technologies. Furthermore, large-scale clinical trials are necessary to validate the efficacy of bioactive constituents alone or in combination with chemotherapeutic drugs for breast cancer treatment.

Cordycepin Inhibits Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Cell Migration and Invasion by Regulating EMT-TFs SLUG, TWIST1, SNAIL1, and ZEB1

Cancer metastasis is the most important cause of cancer-related death, and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) plays crucial roles in cancer metastasis. Cordycepin (CD) is highly enriched in the medicinally used Cordyceps mushroom. In this study, we conducted the antimetastatic activities of CD, specifically focusing on its regulatory effects on EMT-inducing transcription factors (EMT-TFs) in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). Our study showed CD to inhibit the growth, migration, and invasion of BT549 and 4T1 cancer cell lines, by employing cell viability assay and real-time cell analyses. The protein levels of N-Cadherin and E-Cadherin, as well as their transcription factors TWIST1, SLUG, SNAIL1, and ZEB1 in BT549 and 4T1 cells, were estimated by Western blot assays. Results from dual-luciferase reporter assays demonstrated that CD is capable of inactivating the EMT signaling pathway by inhibiting TWIST1 and SLUG expression. Furthermore, in vivo studies with mice carrying cancer cell-derived allograft tumors showed the inhibitory effect of CD on cancer cell growth and metastasis. Furthermore, the additive/synergistic anti-metastasis effect of CD and thymoquinone (TQ), another natural product with promising anticancer roles, was demonstrated by combinational treatment. The results from this research indicate that CD would be a promising therapeutic molecule against TNBC by targeting EMT-TFs, possibly in SLUG, TWIST1, SNAIL1, and ZEB1.

Structural Elucidation and Activities of Cordyceps militaris-Derived Polysaccharides: A Review

Cordyceps militaris is a parasitic edible fungus and has been used as tonics for centuries. Polysaccharides are a major water-soluble component of C. militaris. Recently, C. militaris-derived polysaccharides have been given much attention due to their various actions including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-hyperlipidemic, anti-diabetic, anti-atherosclerotic, and immunomodulatory effects. These bioactivities are determined by the various structural characteristics of polysaccharides including monosaccharide composition, molecular weight, and glycosidic linkage. The widespread use of advanced analytical analysis tools has greatly improved the elucidation of the structural characteristics of C. militaris-derived polysaccharides. However, the methods for polysaccharide structural characterization and the latest findings related to C. militaris-derived polysaccharides, especially the potential structure-activity relationship, have not been well-summarized in recent reviews of the literature. This review will discuss the methods used in the elucidation of the structure of polysaccharides and structural characteristics as well as the signaling pathways modulated by C. militaris-derived polysaccharides. This article provides information useful for the development of C. militaris-derived polysaccharides as well as for investigating other medicinal polysaccharides.

Protective Effect of a Water-Soluble Carotenoid-Rich Extract of Cordyceps militaris against Light-Evoked Functional Vision Deterioration in Mice

Light-evoked retinal photodamage is considered an important factor contributing to functional vision deterioration and can even lead to light maculopathy or dry age-related macular degeneration. Loss of visual acuity (VA) and visual contrast sensitivity function (VCSF) are the major symptoms of retinal degenerative diseases. Cordyceps militaris is a carotenoid-rich Chinese medicinal fungus with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory functions. C. militaris extract is a natural substance, and its bioactive constituents have been shown to confer health benefits, but their application in retinal tissue and functional vision protection in vivo remain incompletely understood. In the present study, we evaluated the influence of water-soluble, carotenoid-rich C. militaris extracts on the visual performance of light-damaged mouse retinas in vivo, using adult female CD-1^® (ICR) albino mice. We showed that oral administration of this C. militaris extract (10 mg/kg, twice daily) protected the neural retina tissue against light-evoked photoreceptor cell death, reduced Müller cell hypertrophic gliosis, and elevated GSH levels and promoted the recovery of VA- and VCSF-thresholds, especially for high spatial frequency-characterized vision. These results suggest that, probably because of its water-soluble carotenoids, C. militaris extract has the potential to prevent or treat light-induced visual dysfunction.

Improvement in the Blood Urea Nitrogen and Serum Creatinine Using New Cultivation of Cordyceps militaris

Background

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a critical public health issue with a huge financial burden for both patients and society worldwide. Unfortunately, there are currently no efficacious therapies to prevent or delay the progression of end-stage renal disease (ESRD). Traditional Chinese medicine practices have shown that Cordyceps militaris (C. militaris) mycelia have a variety of pharmacologically useful properties, including antitumor, immunomodulation, and hepatoprotection. However, the effect of mycelial C. militaris on CKD remains unclear.

Methods

Here, we investigated the effects of C. militaris mycelia on mice with CKD using four types of media: HKS, HKS with vitamin A (HKS + A), CM, and CM with vitamin A (CM + A).

Results

The results at day 10 revealed that the levels of blood urea nitrogen (BUN) were significantly lower in the HKS (41%), HKS + A (41%), and CM + A (34%) groups compared with those in the corresponding control groups (nephrectomic mice). The level of serum creatinine in the HKS + A group decreased by 35% at day 10, whereas the levels in the HKS and CM + A groups decreased only by 14% and 13%, respectively, on day 30. Taken together, this is the first report using four new media (HKS, HKS + A, CM, and CM + A medium) for C. militaris mycelia. Each medium of mycelial C. militaris on CKD exhibits specific effect on BUN, serum creatinine, body weight, total protein, and uric acid.

Conclusions

Taken together, this is the first report using four new media (HKS, HKS + A, CM, and CM + A medium) for C. militaris mycelia. Each medium of mycelial C. militaris on CKD exhibits specific effects on BUN, serum creatinine, body weight, total protein, and uric acid. We concluded that treatment with C. militaris mycelia cultured in HKS or CM + A medium could potentially prevent the deterioration of kidney function in mice with CKD.

Cordycepin from Medicinal Fungi Cordyceps militaris Mitigates Inflammaging-Associated Testicular Damage via Regulating NF-κB/MAPKs Signaling in Naturally Aged Rats

Inflammaging in male reproductive organs covers a wide variety of problems, including sexual dysfunction and infertility. In this study, the beneficial effects of cordycepin (COR), isolated from potential medicinal fungi Cordyceps militaris, in aging-associated testicular inflammation and serum biochemical changes in naturally aged rats were investigated. Male Sprague Dawley rats were divided into young control (YC), aged control (AC), and COR (5, 10, and 20 mg/kg) treated aged rat groups. Aging-associated serum biochemical changes and inflammatory parameters were analyzed by biochemical assay kits, Western blotting, and real-time RT-PCR. Results showed a significant (p < 0.05) alteration in the total blood cell count, lipid metabolism, and liver functional parameters in AC group when compared with YC group. However, COR-treated aged rats ameliorated the altered biochemical parameters significantly (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01 at 5, 10, and 20 mg/kg, respectively). Furthermore, the increase in the expression of inflammatory mediators (COX-2, interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, and tissue necrosis factor-alpha) in aged rat testis was significant (p < 0.05) when compared with YC group. Treatment with COR at 20 mg/kg to aged rats attenuated the increased expression of inflammatory mediators significantly (p < 0.05). Mechanistic studies revealed that the potential attenuating effects exhibited by COR in aged rats was mediated by regulation of NF-κB activation and MAPKs (c-Jun N-terminal kinase, extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2, and p38) signaling. In conclusion, COR restored the altered serum biochemical parameters in aged rats and ameliorated the aging-associated testicular inflammation proving the therapeutic benefits of COR targeting inflammaging-associated male sexual dysfunctions.

Effect of beating process on the physicochemical and textural properties of meat analogs prepared with Cordyceps militaris fruiting body

In the present work, Cordyceps militaris fruiting body was used as protein and natural fibrous structure source to prepare animal free patty. The effects of beating process on the structural and textural properties of patty were also evaluated. The results found that C. militaris fruiting body based patty prepared with beating process, showed bright yellow in color, with a uniform and smooth surface, and without obvious crack, before and after cooking. The beating process disrupted the connective tissues in fruiting bodies, let more protein dissolve, and left the un-soluble fiber structure. This helped to form a fibrous structure and good gel matrix in patty, which mainly contributed to the high hardness, chewiness, adhesiveness, and sensory score. Such C. militaris fruiting body based patties also had a good nutritional quality with high protein and essential amino acid content, as well as a special nutrient of cordycepin.

Identification and functional analysis of bacteria in sclerotia of Cordyceps militaris

Background

Cordyceps militaris is a fungus that parasitizes insects. Compounds from C. militaris are valuable in medicine and functional food. There are many kinds of bacteria in the natural sclerotia of C. militaris. However, the community structure of microorganisms in samples from different places may be different, and their corresponding ecological functions require experimental verification.

Methods

We used high-throughput sequencing technology to analyze bacterial 16S rRNA gene sequences in sclerotia of three samples of C. militaris from Liaoning Province, China. We isolated, identified and verified the function of culturable bacterial strains from the sclerotia.

Results

Pseudomonas, Pedobacter, Sphingobacterium, and Serratia were the dominant bacterial genera in the sclerotia. And function prediction showed that Pseudomonas and Pedobacter could be heterotrophic, Sphingobacterium could decompose urea, and Serratia could reduce nitrate. Two strains of bacteria isolated from the sclerotia of C. militaris, N-2 and N-26, were identified as Stenotrophomonas maltophilia and Pseudomonas baetica, respectively, based on culture and biochemical characteristics. When these isolated strains were co-cultured with C. militaris, the mycelium biomass and mycelium pellet diameter decreased, and the content of extracellular polysaccharide increased. Strain N-26 decreased the cordycepin content in C. militaris.

Conclusions

Bacteria in sclerotia have an important effect on the growth of C. militaris and the production of its metabolites.

Molecular Cloning, Expression and Macrophage Activation of an Immunoregulatory Protein from Cordyceps militaris

Protein components of C. militaris have been reported to possess various biological activities. In our previous research, a Cordyceps militaris-derived immunoregulatory protein (CMIP) was naturally isolated and showed the activity of inhibiting the metastasis of breast cancer cells. This study aimed to obtain recombinant CMIP (rCMIP) using recombinant expression and elucidate its ability to activate macrophages. Recombinant CMIP showed one band at approximately 15 kDa or 30 kDa, or two bands at 15 kDa and 30 kDa, under different denaturation conditions of electrophoresis. The cell binding assay showed that rCMIP selectively binds to the surface of macrophages. After adhesion, it did not induce the apoptosis of RAW 264.7 cells, but promoted their proliferation. Moreover, rCMIP significantly induced the expression of M1 macrophage polarization-related molecules. The mean fluorescence intensity (MFI) of CD 86 was enhanced by 2.1-fold and 3.2-fold under 0.64 μM and 1.6 μM of rCMIP treatment, respectively. Cytokines typically expressed in M1 macrophages, such as TNF-α, iNOS, IL-6, CCL 4, CCL 5 and CXCL 10, were also considerably induced by rCMIP, while the expression of cytokines in typical M2 macrophages, like Arg-1, CCL17 and CCL22, were not changed or slightly decreased. Under rCMIP treatment, the release of NO was also appreciably induced. In the present study, we reported cloning, expression and functional characterization of rCMIP, which was naturally isolated from the fruiting body of C. militaris in our previous study. The data imply that rCMIP possesses immunomodulatory activity in macrophages.

Biomass and Cordycepin Production by the Medicinal Mushroom Cordyceps militaris-A Review of Various Aspects and Recent Trends towards the Exploitation of a Valuable Fungus

Cordyceps militaris is an entomopathogenic ascomycete with similar pharmacological importance to that of the wild caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis. C. militaris has attracted significant research and commercial interest due to its content in bioactive compounds beneficial to human health and the relative ease of cultivation under laboratory conditions. However, room for improvement exists in the commercial-scale cultivation of C. militaris and concerns issues principally related to appropriate strain selection, genetic degeneration of cultures, and substrate optimization. In particular, culture degeneration-usually expressed by abnormal fruit body formation and reduced sporulation-results in important economic losses and is holding back investors and potential growers (mainly in Western countries) from further developing this highly promising sector. In the present review, the main factors that influence the generation of biomass and metabolites (with emphasis on cordycepin biosynthesis) by C. militaris are presented and evaluated in conjunction with the use of a wide range of supplements or additives towards the enhancement of fungal productivity in large-scale cultivation processes. Moreover, physiological and genetic factors that increase or reduce the manifestation of strain degeneration in C. militaris are outlined. Finally, methodologies for developing protocols to be used in C. militaris functional biology studies are discussed.

Cordyceps militaris: An Overview of Its Chemical Constituents in Relation to Biological Activity

Cordyceps spp. mushrooms have a long tradition of use as a natural raw material in Asian ethnomedicine because of their adaptogenic, tonic effects and their ability to reduce fatigue and stimulate the immune system in humans. This review aims to present the chemical composition and medicinal properties of Cordyceps militaris fruiting bodies and mycelium, as well as mycelium from in vitro cultures. The analytical results of the composition of C. militaris grown in culture media show the bioactive components such as cordycepin, polysaccharides, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), ergothioneine and others described in the review. To summarize, based on the presence of several bioactive compounds that contribute to biological activity, C. militaris mushrooms definitely deserve to be considered as functional foods and also have great potential for medicinal use. Recent scientific reports indicate the potential of cordycepin in antiviral activity, particularly against COVID-19.

Potential Therapeutic Effects of Natural Plant Compounds in Kidney Disease

Background: The blockade of the progression or onset of pathological events is essential for the homeostasis of an organism. Some common pathological mechanisms involving a wide range of diseases are the uncontrolled inflammatory reactions that promote fibrosis, oxidative reactions, and other alterations. Natural plant compounds (NPCs) are bioactive elements obtained from natural sources that can regulate physiological processes. Inflammation is recognized as an important factor in the development and evolution of chronic renal damage. Consequently, any compound able to modulate inflammation or inflammation-related processes can be thought of as a renal protective agent and/or a potential treatment tool for controlling renal damage. The objective of this research was to review the beneficial effects of bioactive natural compounds on kidney damage to reveal their efficacy as demonstrated in clinical studies. Methods: This systematic review is based on relevant studies focused on the impact of NPCs with therapeutic potential for kidney disease treatment in humans. Results: Clinical studies have evaluated NPCs as a different way to treat or prevent renal damage and appear to show some benefits in improving OS, inflammation, and antioxidant capacity, therefore making them promising therapeutic tools to reduce or prevent the onset and progression of KD pathogenesis. Conclusions: This review shows the promising clinical properties of NPC in KD therapy. However, more robust clinical trials are needed to establish their safety and therapeutic effects in the area of renal damage.

Cordycepin Sensitizes Cholangiocarcinoma Cells to Be Killed by Natural Killer-92 (NK-92) Cells

Immunotherapy harnessing immune functions is a promising strategy for cancer treatment. Tumor sensitization is one approach to enhance tumor cell susceptibility to immune cell cytotoxicity that can be used in combination with immunotherapy to achieve therapeutic efficiency. Cordycepin, a bioactive compound that can be extracted from some Cordyceps spp. has been reported to effectively inhibit tumor growth, however, the mechanism of its tumor sensitization activity that enhances immune cell cytotoxicity is unknown. In the present study, we investigated the potency of cordycepin to sensitize a lethal cancer, cholangiocarcinoma (CCA), to natural killer (NK) cells. Treatment with cordycepin prior to and during co-culturing with NK-92 cells significantly increased cell death of KKU-213A as compared to solitary cordycepin or NK treatment. Moreover, sensitization activity was also observed in the combination of NK-92 cells and Cordyceps militaris extract that contained cordycepin as a major component. The cordycepin treatment remarkably caused an increase in TRAIL receptor (DR4 and DR5) expression in KKU-213A, suggesting the possible involvement of TRAIL signaling in KKU-213A sensitization to NK-92 cells. In conclusion, this is the first report on the sensitization activity of cordycepin on CCA cells to NK cytotoxicity, which supports that cordycepin can be further developed as an alternate immunomodulating agent.

Improvement of cordycepin production by an isolated Paecilomyces hepiali mutant from combinatorial mutation breeding and medium screening

Cordycepin is a major bioactive compound found in Cordyceps sinensis that exhibits a broad spectrum of biological activities. Here a Paecilomyces hepiali OR-1 strain was initially isolated from plateau soil for the bioproduction of cordycepin. Subsequently, strain modification including ⁶⁰Co γ-ray and ultraviolet irradiation were employed to increase the cordycepin titer, resulted in a high-yield mutant strain P. hepiali ZJB18001 with the cordycepin content of 0.61 mg/g_DCW, showing a 2.3-fold to that from the wild strain (0.26 mg/g_DCW). Furthermore, medium screening based on Box-Behnken design and the response surface methodology facilitated the enhancement of cordycepin yield to the value of 0.96 mg/g_DCW at 25 °C for 5 days in submerged cultivation with an optimized medium composition. The high cordycepin yield, rapid growth rate and stable genetic characteristics of P. hepiali ZJB18001 are beneficial in terms of costs and time for the industrialization of cordycepin production.

Neuroprotective Effect for Cerebral Ischemia by Natural Products: A Review

Natural products have a significant role in the prevention of disease and boosting of health in humans and animals. Stroke is a disease with high prevalence and incidence, the pathogenesis is a complex cascade reaction. In recent years, it’s reported that a vast number of natural products have demonstrated beneficial effects on stroke worldwide. Natural products have been discovered to modulate activities with multiple targets and signaling pathways to exert neuroprotection via direct or indirect effects on enzymes, such as kinases, regulatory receptors, and proteins. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the established pharmacological effects and multiple target mechanisms of natural products for cerebral ischemic injury in vitro and in vivo preclinical models, and their potential neuro-therapeutic applications. In addition, the biological activity of natural products is closely related to their structure, and the structure-activity relationship of most natural products in neuroprotection is lacking, which should be further explored in future. Overall, we stress on natural products for their role in neuroprotection, and this wide band of pharmacological or biological activities has made them suitable candidates for the treatment of stroke.