MicroRNA as an Important Target for Anticancer Drug Development

miRNAs in ovarian disorders: Small but strong cast

PURPOSE

This research aimed to analyze alterations in microRNA expression in the diseases POF (Premature Ovarian Failure), PCOS (Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome), and ovarian cancer in order to understand the molecular changes associated with these conditions. The findings could potentially be utilized for diagnostic, therapeutic, predictive, and preventive purposes. Furthermore, the impact and role of microRNAs in each ailment, along with their functional pathways, were elucidated and examined.

METHODS

In this study, the genes involved in the disease were studied, and then the miRNAs that targeted these genes were evaluated, and finally the signaling and functional pathways of each of the miRNAs were assessed. In this process, genetic databases and previous studies were carefully assessed.

RESULTS

miRNAs are short nucleotide sequences that belong to the category of non-coding RNAs. They play a crucial role in various physiological activities, including cell division, growth, differentiation, and cell death (necrosis and apoptosis), miRNAs are involved in various physiological processes Such alterations are common in various diseases, including cancer. miRNAs are involved in various physiological processes, such as folliculogenesis and steroidogenesis, as well as in pathological conditions such as POF, PCOS, and ovarian cancer. They have powerful regulatory effects and controlling the most activities of normal and pathological cells. While microRNAs (miRNAs) play a significant role in normal ovarian functions, there are reports of their expression changes in PCOS, ovarian cancer, and POF.

CONCLUSIONS

miRNAs have been found to exert significant influence on both physiological and pathological cellular processes. Understanding the dynamic patterns of miRNA alterations can provide valuable insights for researchers and therapists, enabling them to utilize these biomarkers effectively in diagnostic, therapeutic, and preventive applications.

hsa-miR-181a-5p inhibits glioblastoma development via the MAPK pathway: in-silico and in-vitro study

Background

Glioblastoma remains a highly invasive primary brain malignancy with an undesirable prognosis. Growing evidence has shed light on the importance of microRNAs (miRs), as small non-coding RNAs, in tumor development and progression. The present study leverages the in-silico and in-vitro techniques to investigate the significance of hsa-miR-181a-5p and the underlying hsa-miR-181a-5p-meidated signaling pathway in glioblastoma development.

Methods

Bioinformatic studies were performed on GSE158284, GSE108474 (REMBRANDT study), TCGA-GTEx, CCLE, GeneMANIA, Reactome, WikiPathways, KEGG, miRDB, and microT-CDS to identify the significance of hsa-miR-181a-5p and its underlying target. Afterward, the U373 cell line was selected and transfected with hsa-miR-181a-5p mimics, and the cell viability, clonogenicity, migration, mRNA expression, apoptosis, and cell cycle were studied using the MTT assay, colony formation test, migration assay, qRT-PCR, and flow cytometry respectively.

Results

hsa-miR-181a-5p expression is decreased in glioblastoma samples. The in-silico results have shown that hsa-miR-181a-5p could regulate the MAPK pathway by targeting AKT3. The experimental assays have shown that hsa-miR-181a-5p decreases the migration of glioblastoma cells, arrests the cell cycle, and increases the apoptosis rate. Besides downregulating MMP9 and upregulating BAX, hsa-miR-181a-5p downregulates MET, MAP2K1, MAPK1, MAPK3, and AKT3 expression in U373 cells. The in-vitro results were consistent with in-silico results regarding the regulatory effect of hsa-miR-181a-5p on the MAPK pathway, leading to tumor suppression in glioblastoma.

Conclusions

hsa-miR-181a-5p inhibits glioblastoma development partially by regulating the signaling factors of the MAPK pathway.

MicroRNA signatures in osteosarcoma: diagnostic insights and therapeutic prospects

Osteosarcoma (OSa) is the most prevalent primary malignant bone tumor in children and adolescents, characterized by complex genetic and epigenetic alterations. Traditional treatments face significant challenges due to high rates of drug resistance and lack of targeted therapies. Recent advances in microRNA (miRNA) research have opened new avenues for understanding and treating osteosarcoma. This review explores the many critical functions of miRNAs in osteosarcoma, particularly their potential for clinical use. The review highlights two key areas where miRNAs could be beneficial. Firstly, miRNAs can act as biomarkers for diagnosing osteosarcoma and predicting patient prognosis. Secondly, specific miRNAs can regulate cellular processes like proliferation, cell death, migration, and even resistance to chemotherapy drugs in osteosarcoma. This ability to target multiple pathways within cancer cells makes miRNA-based therapies highly promising. Additionally, though the interaction between miRNAs and circular RNAs (circRNAs) falls outside the scope of the paper, it has also been discussed briefly. While miRNA-based therapies offer exciting possibilities for targeting multiple pathways in osteosarcoma, challenges remain. Efficient delivery, potential off-target effects, tumor complexity, and rigorous testing are hurdles to overcome before these therapies can reach patients. Despite these challenges, continued research and collaboration among scientists, clinicians, and regulatory bodies hold the promise of overcoming them. This collaborative effort can pave the way for the development of safe and effective miRNA-based treatments for osteosarcoma.

Involvement of oncomiRs miR-23, miR-24, and miR-27 in the regulation of alternative polyadenylation in glioblastoma via CFIm25 cleavage factor

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a highly aggressive brain tumor with a poor prognosis. The cleavage factor Im 25 (CFIm25), a crucial component of the CFIm complex, plays a key role in regulating the length of the mRNA 3'-UTR and has been implicated in various cancers, including GBM. This study sought to investigate the regulatory influence of specific microRNAs (miRNAs) on CFIm25 expression in GBM, a highly aggressive brain tumor. Bioinformatics analysis identified miRNA candidates targeting CFIm25 mRNA, and gene expression profiles from the NCBI database (GSE90603) were used for further analysis. Expression levels of CFIm25 and selected miRNAs were assessed using qRT-PCR in GBM clinical samples (n = 20) and non-malignant brain tissues (n = 5). Additionally, the MTT assay was performed to examine the effect of miRNA overexpression on U251 cell viability. Lentivectors expressing the identified miRNAs were employed to experimentally validate their regulatory role on CFIm25 in U251 cell lines, and Western blot analysis was conducted to determine CFIm25 protein levels. We observed significantly increased levels of miR-23, miR-24, and miR-27 expression, associated with a marked reduction in CFIm25 expression in GBM samples compared to non-malignant brain tissues. In particular, overexpression of miR-23, miR-24, and miR-27 in U251 cells resulted in CFIm25 downregulation at both the mRNA and protein levels, while their inhibition increased CFIm25 and reduced cell proliferation. These observations strongly implicate miR-23, miR-24, and miR-27 in regulating CFIm25 expression in GBM, emphasizing their potential as promising therapeutic targets for enhancing treatment responses in glioblastoma.

Gene Variants in Components of the microRNA Processing Pathway in Chronic Myeloid Leukemia

Current therapy in chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) has improved patient life expectancy close to that of healthy individuals. However, molecular alterations other than BCR::ABL1 fusion gene in CML are barely known. MicroRNAs are important regulators of gene expression, and variants in some of the components of microRNA biosynthesis pathways have been associated with genetic susceptibility to different types of cancer. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the association of variants located in genes involved in the biogenesis of microRNAs with susceptibility to CML. Fifteen variants in eight genes involved in the biogenesis of miRNAs were genotyped in 296 individuals with CML and 485 healthy participants using TaqMan probes. The association of gene variants with CML and clinical variables was evaluated by a Chi-square test, and odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals were estimated by logistic regression. The variant rs13078 in DICER1 was significantly higher among CML individuals than in healthy participants. In addition, the variants rs7813 and rs2740349 were significantly associated with worse prognosis, according to their Hasford scores, whereas the rs2740349 variant was also associated with a later age at diagnosis. These findings suggest that variants in components of the microRNA biogenesis pathway could be involved in CML genetic risk.

CHO cell engineering via targeted integration of circular miR-21 decoy using CRISPR/RMCE hybrid system

Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, widely acknowledged as the preferred host system for industrial recombinant protein manufacturing, play a crucial role in developing pharmaceuticals, including anticancer therapeutics. Nevertheless, mammalian cell-based biopharmaceutical production methods are still beset by cellular constraints such as limited growth and poor productivity. MicroRNA-21 (miR-21) has a major impact on a variety of malignancies, including glioblastoma multiforme (GBM). However, reduced productivity and growth rate have been linked to miR-21 overexpression in CHO cells. The current study aimed to engineer a recombinant CHO (rCHO) cell using the CRISPR-mediated precise integration into target chromosome (CRIS-PITCh) system coupled with the Bxb1 recombinase-mediated cassette exchange (RMCE) to express a circular miR-21 decoy (CM21D) with five bulged binding sites for miR-21 sponging. Implementing the ribonucleoprotein (RNP) delivery method, a landing pad was inserted into the genome utilizing the CRIS-PITCh technique. Subsequently, the CM21D cassette flanked by Bxb1 attB was then retargeted into the integrated landing pad using the RMCE/Bxb1 system. This strategy raised the targeting efficiency by 1.7-fold, and off-target effects were decreased. The miR-21 target genes (Pdcd4 and Atp11b) noticed a significant increase in expression upon the miR-21 sponging through CM21D. Following the expression of CM21D, rCHO cells showed a substantial decrease in doubling time and a 1.3-fold increase in growth rate. Further analysis showed an increased yield of hrsACE2, a secretory recombinant protein, by 2.06-fold. Hence, we can conclude that sponging-induced inhibition of miR-21 may lead to a growth rate increase that could be linked to increased CHO cell productivity. For industrial cell lines, including CHO cells, an increase in productivity is crucial. The results of our research indicate that CM21D is an auspicious CHO engineering approach. KEY POINTS: • CHO is an ideal host cell line for producing industrial therapeutics manufacturing, and miR-21 is downregulated in CHO cells, which produce recombinant proteins. • The miR-21 target genes noticed a significant increase in expression upon the miR-21 sponging through CM21D. Additionally, sponging of miR-21 by CM21D enhanced the growth rate of CHO cells. • Productivity and growth rate were increased in CHO cells expressing recombinant hrs-ACE2 protein after CM21D knocking in.

hsa-miR-CHA2, a novel microRNA, exhibits anticancer effects by suppressing cyclin E1 in human non-small cell lung cancer cells

Despite considerable therapeutic advancements, the global survival rate for lung cancer patients remains poor, posing challenges in developing an effective treatment strategy. In many cases, microRNAs (miRNAs) exhibit abnormal expression levels in cancers, including lung cancer. Dysregulated miRNAs often play a crucial role in the development and progression of cancer. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms underlying aberrant miRNA expression during carcinogenesis may provide crucial clues to develop novel therapeutics. In this study, we identified and cloned a novel miRNA, hsa-miR-CHA2, which is abnormally downregulated in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC)-derived cell lines and tissues of patients with NSCLC. Furthermore, we found that hsa-miR-CHA2 regulates the post-transcriptional levels of Cyclin E1 (CCNE1) by binding to the 3'-UTR of CCNE1 mRNA. CCNE1, a cell cycle regulator involved in the G1/S transition, is often amplified in various cancers. Notably, hsa-miR-CHA2 overexpression led to the alteration of the Rb-E2F pathway, a significant signaling pathway in the cell cycle, by targeting CCNE1 in A549 and SK-LU-1 cells. Subsequently, we confirmed that hsa-miR-CHA2 induced G1-phase arrest and exhibited an anti-proliferative effect by targeting CCNE1. Moreover, in subcutaneous xenograft mouse models, intra-tumoral injection of polyplexed hsa-miR-CHA2 mimic suppressed tumor growth and development. In conclusion, hsa-miR-CHA2 exhibited an anticancer effect by targeting CCNE1 both in vitro and in vivo. These findings suggest the potential role of hsa-miR-CHA2 as an important regulator of cell proliferation in molecular-targeted therapy for NSCLC.

A Review of Nanotechnology in microRNA Detection and Drug Delivery

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small, non-coding RNAs that play a crucial role in regulating gene expression. Dysfunction in miRNAs can lead to various diseases, including cancers, neurological disorders, and cardiovascular conditions. To date, approximately 2000 miRNAs have been identified in humans. These small molecules have shown promise as disease biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets. Therefore, identifying miRNA biomarkers for diseases and developing effective miRNA drug delivery systems are essential. Nanotechnology offers promising new approaches to addressing scientific and medical challenges. Traditional miRNA detection methods include next-generation sequencing, microarrays, Northern blotting, and reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). Nanotechnology can serve as an effective alternative to Northern blotting and RT-qPCR for miRNA detection. Moreover, nanomaterials exhibit unique properties that differ from larger counterparts, enabling miRNA therapeutics to more effectively enter target cells, reduce degradation in the bloodstream, and be released in specific tissues or cells. This paper reviews the application of nanotechnology in miRNA detection and drug delivery systems. Given that miRNA therapeutics are still in the developing stages, nanotechnology holds great promise for accelerating miRNA therapeutics development.

MicroRNA-21 in urologic cancers: from molecular mechanisms to clinical implications

The three most common kinds of urologic malignancies are prostate, bladder, and kidney cancer, which typically cause substantial morbidity and mortality. Early detection and effective treatment are essential due to their high fatality rates. As a result, there is an urgent need for innovative research to improve the clinical management of patients with urologic cancers. A type of small noncoding RNAs of 22 nucleotides, microRNAs (miRNAs) are well-known for their important roles in a variety of developmental processes. Among these, microRNA-21 (miR-21) stands out as a commonly studied miRNA with implications in tumorigenesis and cancer development, particularly in urological tumors. Recent research has shed light on the dysregulation of miR-21 in urological tumors, offering insights into its potential as a prognostic, diagnostic, and therapeutic tool. This review delves into the pathogenesis of miR-21 in prostate, bladder, and renal cancers, its utility as a cancer biomarker, and the therapeutic possibilities of targeting miR-21.

NOS2-derived low levels of NO drive psoriasis pathogenesis

Psoriasis is an IL-23/Th17-mediated skin disorder with a strong genetic predisposition. The impact of its susceptibility gene nitric oxide synthase 2 (NOS2) remains unknown. Here, we demonstrate strong NOS2 mRNA expression in psoriatic epidermis, an effect that is IL-17 dependent. However, its complete translation to protein is prevented by the IL-17-induced miR-31 implying marginally upregulated NO levels in psoriatic skin. We demonstrate that lower levels of NO, as opposed to higher levels, increase keratinocyte proliferation and mediate IL-17 downstream effects. We hypothesized that the psoriatic phenotype may be alleviated by either eliminating or increasing cellular NO levels. In fact, using the imiquimod psoriasis mouse model, we found a profound impact on the psoriatic inflammation in both IMQ-treated NOS2 KO mice and wild-type mice treated with IMQ and the NO-releasing berdazimer gel. In conclusion, we demonstrate that IL-17 induces NOS2 and fine-tunes its translation towards a window of proinflammatory and hyperproliferative effects and identify NO donor therapy as a new treatment modality for psoriasis.

Hallmarks of cancer resistance

This review explores the hallmarks of cancer resistance, including drug efflux mediated by ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, metabolic reprogramming characterized by the Warburg effect, and the dynamic interplay between cancer cells and mitochondria. The role of cancer stem cells (CSCs) in treatment resistance and the regulatory influence of non-coding RNAs, such as long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), microRNAs (miRNAs), and circular RNAs (circRNAs), are studied. The chapter emphasizes future directions, encompassing advancements in immunotherapy, strategies to counter adaptive resistance, integration of artificial intelligence for predictive modeling, and the identification of biomarkers for personalized treatment. The comprehensive exploration of these hallmarks provides a foundation for innovative therapeutic approaches, aiming to navigate the complex landscape of cancer resistance and enhance patient outcomes.

Benzenesulfonamide decorated dihydropyrimidin(thi)ones: carbonic anhydrase profiling and antiproliferative activity

In the last decades, carbonic anhydrases (CAs) have become the top investigated innovative pharmacological targets and, in particular, isoforms IX and XII have been widely studied due to the evidence of their overexpression in hypoxic tumors. The frantic race to find new anticancer agents places the quick preparation of large libraries of putative bioactive compounds as the basis of a successful drug discovery and development programme. In this context, multi-component and, in general, one-step reactions are becoming very popular and, among them, Biginelli's reaction gave clean and easy-to-isolate products. Thus, we synthesized a series of Biginelli's products (10-17a-b) and similar derivatives (20-21) bearing the benzenesulfonamide moiety, which is known to inhibit CA enzymes. Through the stopped-flow technique, we were able to assess their ability to inhibit the targeted CAs IX and XII in the nanomolar range with promising selectivity over the physiologically relevant isoforms I and II. Crystallography studies and docking simulations helped us to gain insight into the interaction patterns established in the enzyme-inhibitor complex. From a chemical similarity-based screening of in-house libraries of compounds, a diphenylpyrimidine (23) emerged. The surprisingly potent inhibitory activity of 23 for CAs IX and XII along with its strong antiproliferative effect on two (triple-negative breast cancer MDA-MB-231 and glioblastoma U87MG) cell lines laid the foundation for further investigation, again confirming the key role of CAs in cancer.

Delivery of miR-29a improves the permeability of cisplatin by downregulating collagen I expression

In the clinical setting, chemotherapy is the most widely used antitumor treatment, however, chemotherapy resistance significantly limits its efficacy. Reduced drug influx is a key mechanism of chemoresistance, and inhibition of the complexity of the tumor microenvironment (TME) may improve chemotherapy drug influx and therapeutic efficiency. In the current study, we identified that the major extracellular matrix protein collagen I is more highly expressed in lung cancer tissues than adjacent tissues in patients with lung cancer. Furthermore, Kaplan-Meier analysis suggested that COL1A1 expression was negatively correlated with the survival time of patients with lung cancer. Our previous study demonstrated that miR-29a inhibited collagen I expression in lung fibroblasts. Here, we investigated the effect of miR-29a on collagen I expression and the cellular behavior of lung cancer cells. Our results suggest that transfection with miR-29a could prevent Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) migration by downregulating collagen I expression, but did not affect the proliferation, apoptosis, and cell cycle of LLC cells. In a 3D tumoroid model, we demonstrated that miR-29a transfection significantly increased cisplatin (CDDP) permeation and CDDP-induced cell death. Furthermore, neutral lipid emulsion-based miR-29a delivery improved the therapeutic effect of cisplatin in an LLC spontaneous tumor model in vivo. In summary, this study shows that targeting collagen I expression in the TME contributes to chemotherapy drug influx and improves therapeutic efficacy in lung cancer.

The Role of MicroRNAs in HIV Infection

MicroRNAs (miRNAs), a class of small, non-coding RNAs, play a pivotal role in regulating gene expression at the post-transcriptional level. These regulatory molecules are integral to many biological processes and have been implicated in the pathogenesis of various diseases, including Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection. This review aims to cover the current understanding of the multifaceted roles miRNAs assume in the context of HIV infection and pathogenesis. The discourse is structured around three primary focal points: (i) elucidation of the mechanisms through which miRNAs regulate HIV replication, encompassing both direct targeting of viral transcripts and indirect modulation of host factors critical for viral replication; (ii) examination of the modulation of miRNA expression by HIV, mediated through either viral proteins or the activation of cellular pathways consequent to viral infection; and (iii) assessment of the impact of miRNAs on the immune response and the progression of disease in HIV-infected individuals. Further, this review delves into the potential utility of miRNAs as biomarkers and therapeutic agents in HIV infection, underscoring the challenges and prospects inherent to this line of inquiry. The synthesis of current evidence positions miRNAs as significant modulators of the host-virus interplay, offering promising avenues for enhancing the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of HIV infection.

Tiny Guides, Big Impact: Focus on the Opportunities and Challenges of miR-Based Treatments for ARDS

Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) is characterized by lung inflammation and increased membrane permeability, which represents the leading cause of mortality in ICUs. Mechanical ventilation strategies are at the forefront of supportive approaches for ARDS. Recently, an increasing understanding of RNA biology, function, and regulation, as well as the success of RNA vaccines, has spurred enthusiasm for the emergence of novel RNA-based therapeutics. The most common types of RNA seen in development are silencing (si)RNAs, antisense oligonucleotide therapy (ASO), and messenger (m)RNAs that collectively account for 80% of the RNA therapeutics pipeline. These three RNA platforms are the most mature, with approved products and demonstrated commercial success. Most recently, miRNAs have emerged as pivotal regulators of gene expression. Their dysregulation in various clinical conditions offers insights into ARDS pathogenesis and offers the innovative possibility of using microRNAs as targeted therapy. This review synthesizes the current state of the literature to contextualize the therapeutic potential of miRNA modulation. It considers the potential for miR-based therapeutics as a nuanced approach that incorporates the complexity of ARDS pathophysiology and the multifaceted nature of miRNA interactions.

Impact of Long-Lasting Environmental Factors on Regulation Mediated by the miR-34 Family

The present review focuses on the interactions of newly emerging environmental factors with miRNA-mediated regulation. In particular, we draw attention to the effects of phthalates, electromagnetic fields (EMFs) and a disrupted light/dark cycle. miRNAs are small non-coding RNA molecules with a tremendous regulatory impact, which is usually executed via gene expression inhibition. To address the capacity of environmental factors to influence miRNA-mediated regulation, the miR-34 family was selected for its well-described oncostatic and neuro-modulatory properties. The expression of miR-34 is in a tissue-dependent manner to some extent under the control of the circadian system. There is experimental evidence implicating that phthalates, EMFs and the circadian system interact with the miR-34 family, in both lines of its physiological functioning. The inhibition of miR-34 expression in response to phthalates, EMFs and light contamination has been described in cancer tissue and cell lines and was associated with a decline in oncostatic miR-34a signalling (decrease in p21 expression) and a promotion of tumorigenesis (increases in Noth1, cyclin D1 and cry1 expressions). The effects of miR-34 on neural functions have also been influenced by phthalates, EMFs and a disrupted light/dark cycle. Environmental factors shifted the effects of miR-34 from beneficial to the promotion of neurodegeneration and decreased cognition. Moreover, the apoptogenic capacity of miR-34 induced via phthalate administration in the testes has been shown to negatively influence germ cell proliferation. To conclude, as the oncostatic and positive neuromodulatory functions of the miR-34 family can be strongly influenced by environmental factors, their interactions should be taken into consideration in translational medicine.

Melatonin affects the expression of microRNA-21: A mini-review of current evidence

Melatonin (MLT) is an endogenous hormone produced by pineal gland which possess promising anti-tumor effects. Anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant properties of MLT, along with its immunomodulatory, proapoptotic, and anti-angiogenic properties, are often referred to the main mechanisms of its anti-tumor effects. Recent evidence has suggested that epigenetic alterations are also involved in the anti-tumor properties of MLT. Among these MLT-induced epigenetic alterations is modulation of the expression of several oncogenic and tumor suppressor microRNAs(miRNAs). MiRNAs are among the most promising and potential therapeutic and diagnostic tools in different diseases and enhanced the development of better therapeutic drugs. Suppression of oncomicroRNAs such as microRNA-21, - 20a, and - 27a as well as, up-regulation of microRNA-34 a/c are among the most important effects of MLT on microRNAs homeostasis. Recently, miR-21 has attracted the attention of scientists due to the its wide range of effects on different cancers and diseases. Regulation of this RNA may be a key to the development of better therapeutic targets. The present review will summarize the findings of in vitro and experimental studies of MLT-induced impacts on the expression of microRNAs which are involved in different models and numerous stages of tumor initiation, growth, metastasis, and chemo-resistance.

Regulation of gene expression by modulating microRNAs through Epigallocatechin-3-gallate in cancer

Cancer is an intricate ailment that has a higher death rate globally and is characterized by aberrant cell proliferation and metastasis in nature. Since the beginning of healthcare, natural products, especially those derived from plants, have been utilized to support human health. Green tea contains an essential catechin called epigallocatechin gallate, which has anti-proliferative, anti-mutagenic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidative properties. The anticancer properties of EGCG have been extensively studied using pre-clinical cell culture and animal model systems. Dysregulated miRNA may be a biomarker since it influences the different characteristics of cancer like upholding proliferative signaling, cell death, invasiveness, metastasis, and angiogenesis. EGCG either elevates or lowers the expression of dysregulated miRNAs in cancer. Nonetheless, due to its anticancer properties, greater attention has been paid towards the development of efficient strategies for utilizing EGCG in cancer chemotherapy. This review summarizes the modifying effect of EGCG on miRNAs in cancer after briefly discussing the anticancer mechanisms of EGCG and the function of miRNAs in cancer.

Trials and Tribulations of MicroRNA Therapeutics

The discovery of the link between microRNAs (miRNAs) and a myriad of human diseases, particularly various cancer types, has generated significant interest in exploring their potential as a novel class of drugs. This has led to substantial investments in interdisciplinary research fields such as biology, chemistry, and medical science for the development of miRNA-based therapies. Furthermore, the recent global success of SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccines against the COVID-19 pandemic has further revitalized interest in RNA-based immunotherapies, including miRNA-based approaches to cancer treatment. Consequently, RNA therapeutics have emerged as highly adaptable and modular options for cancer therapy. Moreover, advancements in RNA chemistry and delivery methods have been pivotal in shaping the landscape of RNA-based immunotherapy, including miRNA-based approaches. Consequently, the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industry has witnessed a resurgence of interest in incorporating RNA-based immunotherapies and miRNA therapeutics into their development programs. Despite substantial progress in preclinical research, the field of miRNA-based therapeutics remains in its early stages, with only a few progressing to clinical development, none reaching phase III clinical trials or being approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and several facing termination due to toxicity issues. These setbacks highlight existing challenges that must be addressed for the broad clinical application of miRNA-based therapeutics. Key challenges include establishing miRNA sensitivity, specificity, and selectivity towards their intended targets, mitigating immunogenic reactions and off-target effects, developing enhanced methods for targeted delivery, and determining optimal dosing for therapeutic efficacy while minimizing side effects. Additionally, the limited understanding of the precise functions of miRNAs limits their clinical utilization. Moreover, for miRNAs to be viable for cancer treatment, they must be technically and economically feasible for the widespread adoption of RNA therapies. As a result, a thorough risk evaluation of miRNA therapeutics is crucial to minimize off-target effects, prevent overdosing, and address various other issues. Nevertheless, the therapeutic potential of miRNAs for various diseases is evident, and future investigations are essential to determine their applicability in clinical settings.

RNA therapeutics in cancer treatment

RNA therapeutics are a class of drugs that use RNA molecules to treat diseases, including cancer. RNA therapeutics work by targeting specific genes or proteins involved in the disease process, with the aim of blocking or altering their activity to ultimately halt or reverse the disease progression. The use of RNA therapeutics in cancer treatment has shown great potential, as they offer the ability to specifically target cancer cells while leaving healthy cells intact. This is in contrast to traditional chemotherapy and radiation treatments, which can damage healthy cells and cause unpleasant side effects. The field of RNA therapeutics is rapidly advancing, with several types of RNA molecules being developed for cancer treatment, including small interfering RNA, microRNA, mRNA, and RNA aptamers. Each type of RNA molecule has unique properties and mechanisms of action, allowing for targeted and personalized cancer treatments. In this chapter, we will explore the different types of RNA therapeutics used in cancer treatment, their mechanisms of action, and their potential applications in treating different types of cancer. We will also discuss the challenges and opportunities in the development and research of RNA therapeutics for cancer, as well as the future outlook for this promising field.

Epigenetic targets to enhance antitumor immune response through the induction of tertiary lymphoid structures

Tertiary lymphoid structures (TLS) are ectopic lymphoid aggregates found in sites of chronic inflammation such as tumors and autoimmune diseases. The discovery that TLS formation at tumor sites correlated with good patient prognosis has triggered extensive research into various techniques to induce their formation at the tumor microenvironment (TME). One strategy is the exogenous induction of specific cytokines and chemokine expression in murine models. However, applying such systemic chemokine expression can result in significant toxicity and damage to healthy tissues. Also, the TLS formed from exogenous chemokine induction is heterogeneous and different from the ones associated with favorable prognosis. Therefore, there is a need to optimize additional approaches like immune cell engineering with lentiviral transduction to improve the TLS formation in vivo. Similarly, the genetic and epigenetic regulation of the different phases of TLS neogenesis are still unknown. Understanding these molecular regulations could help identify novel targets to induce tissue-specific TLS in the TME. This review offers a unique insight into the molecular checkpoints of the different stages and mechanisms involved in TLS formation. This review also highlights potential epigenetic targets to induce TLS neogenesis. The review further explores epigenetic therapies (epi-therapy) and ongoing clinical trials using epi-therapy in cancers. In addition, it builds upon the current knowledge of tools to generate TLS and TLS phenotyping biomarkers with predictive and prognostic clinical potential.

A New Frontier in Phytotherapy: Harnessing the Therapeutic Power of Medicinal Herb-derived miRNAs

Medicinal herbs have been utilized in the treatment of various pathologic conditions, including neoplasms, organ fibrosis, and diabetes mellitus. However, the precise pharmacological actions of plant miRNAs in animals remain to be fully elucidated, particularly in terms of their therapeutic efficacy and mechanism of action. In this review, some important miRNAs from foods and medicinal herbs are presented. Plant miRNAs exhibit a range of pharmacological properties, such as anti-cancer, anti-fibrosis, anti-viral, anti-inflammatory effects, and neuromodulation, among others. These results have not only demonstrated a cross-species regulatory effect, but also suggested that the miRNAs from medicinal herbs are their bioactive components. This shows a promising prospect for plant miRNAs to be used as drugs. Here, the pharmacological properties of plant miRNAs and their underlying mechanisms have been highlighted, which can provide new insights for clarifying the therapeutic mechanisms of medicinal herbs and suggest a new way for developing therapeutic drugs.

Glioblastoma Multiforme miRNA based Comprehensive Study to Validate Phytochemicals for Effective Treatment against Deadly Tumour through In Silico Evaluation

BACKGROUND

Glioblastoma Multiforme (GBM) is a prevalent and deadly type of primary astrocytoma, constituting over 60% of adult brain tumors, and has a poor prognosis, with a high relapse rate within 7 months of diagnosis. Despite surgical, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy treatments, GBM remains challenging due to resistance. MicroRNA (miRNAs) control gene expression at transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels by targeting their messenger RNA (mRNA), and also contribute to the development of various neoplasms, including GBM.

METHODS

The present study focuses on exploring the miRNAs-based pathogenesis of GBM and evaluating most potential plant-based therapeutic agents with in silico analysis. Gene chips were retrieved from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database, followed by the Robust- Rank- Aggereg algorithm to determine the Differentially Expressed miRNAs (DEMs). The predicted targets were intersected with the GBM-associated genes, and Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis of the overlapping genes was performed. At the same time, five phytochemicals were selected for the Connectivity map (CMap), and the most efficient ones were those that had undergone molecular docking analysis to obtain the potential therapeutic agents.

RESULTS

The hsa-miR-10b, hsa-miR-21, and hsa-miR-15b were obtained, and eight genes were found to be associated with glioma pathways; VSIG4, PROCR, PLAT, and ITGB2 were upregulated while, CAMK2B, PDE1A, GABRA1, and KCNJ6 were downregulated. The drugs Resveratrol and Quercetin were identified as the most prominent drugs.

CONCLUSION

These miRNAs-based drugs can be used as a curative agent for the treatment of GBM. However, in vivo, experimental data, and clinical trials are necessary to provide an alternative to conventional GBM cancer chemotherapy.

Distinctive Expression of MetastamiRs in Breast Cancer Mesenchymal Stem Cells Isolated from Solid Tumor

BACKGROUND

MSCs are a part of the tumor microenvironment, which secrete cytokines and chemokines. They can affect metastasis and the growth of tumors. metastamiRs are newly recognized regulatory elements of the metastasis pathway which are involved in epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT).

OBJECTIVE

In the present study, we aimed to assess the expression profile of metastamiRs in the context of MSCs in correlation with their invasion and migration power.

METHODS

Tumor-isolated BC-MSCs and normal human mammary epithelial cells (HMECs) along with MCF-7, MDA-MB231, and MCF-10A cells were prepared and confirmed for their identity. The cells were assessed for CD44+CD24¯ percentage, Oct-4, and Survivin expression. GEO, KEGG, and TCGA databases were investigated to detect differential miR-expressions. Real- time PCR for 13 miRs was performed using LNA primers. Ultimately, Transwell-Matrigel assays as used to assess the level of migration and invasion.

RESULTS

Our results indicated that some oncomiRs like miR-10b were upregulated in BC-MSCs, while the levels of miR-373 and miR-520c were similar to the MCF-10A. Generally, miR-200 family members were on lower levels compared to the other miR-suppressor (miR-146a, 146b, and 335). miR-31 and 193b were up-regulated in MCF-10A. The most invasiveness was observed in the MDA-MB231 cell line.

CONCLUSION

We have demonstrated that the miR-expression levels of BC-MSCs are somewhat in between MCF-7 and MDA-MB231 miR-expression levels. This could be the logic behind the moderate level of invasion in BC-MSCs. Therefore, miR-therapy approaches such as miR-mimic or antagomiRs could be used for BC-MSCs in clinical cancer therapy.

The Effect of MiR320a on Lung Cancer

Lung cancer has a high mortality rate among cancers in both women and men. Currently, lung cáncer diagnosis is made with clinical examination, low-dose CT scan and molecular-based methods and its treatment options include chemotherapy, surgery, radiotherapy or immunotherapy. However, the life expectancy of lung cancer is not very high, and still it is usually diagnosed very lately, which leads to poorer prognosis. MicroRNAs [miRNAs] are small noncoding RNAs that regulate many diverse activities in the cell that can affect tumorigenesis by regulating many cell functions related to cancer, such as cell cycle, metastasis, angiogenesis, metabolism, and apoptosis. Also, it can have a potential diagnostic, therapeutic, and prognostic value for lung cancer. MiR320a is a promising microRNA that may help us in the diagnosis, treatment and prognosis of lung cancer, but some aspects of its clinical application are still vague, especially its effect on heavy smokers, delivery mechanism, toxicity and lack of reliable critical value. In this paper, we examined its comprehensive molecular interactions that lead to its tumor suppressor effect, and we reviewed its clinical application until now.

Stemness genes and miR-1247-3p expression associate with clinicopathological parameters and prognosis in lung adenocarcinoma

Lung cancer makes up one-fourth of all cancer-related mortality with the highest mortality rate among all cancers. Despite recent scientific advancements in cancer therapeutics, the 5-year survival rate of lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) cancer patients remains below 15 percent. It has been suggested that the high mortality rate of LUAD is linked to the acquisition of progenitor-like cells with stem-like characteristics that assist the whole tumor in regulating immune cell infiltration. To examine this hypothesis further, this study mined several databases to explore the presence of stemness-related genes and miRNAs in LUAD cancers. We examine their association with immune and accessory cell infiltration rates and patient survival. We found 3 stem cell-related genes, ORC1L, KIF20A, and DLGAP5, present in LUAD that also correlate with changes in immune infiltration rates and reduced patient survival rates. Additionally, the modulation in myeloid-derived suppressor cell (MDSC) infiltration and miRNA hsa-mir-1247-3p mediated targeting of tumor suppressor SLC24A4 and oncogenes RAB3B and HJURP appears to primarily regulate LUAD patient survival. Given these findings, hsa-mir-1247-3p and/or its associated gene targets may offer a promising avenue to enhance patient survivability.

miRNA-Based Technologies in Cancer Therapy

The discovery of therapeutic miRNAs is one of the most exciting challenges for pharmaceutical companies. Since the first miRNA was discovered in 1993, our knowledge of miRNA biology has grown considerably. Many studies have demonstrated that miRNA expression is dysregulated in many diseases, making them appealing tools for novel therapeutic approaches. This review aims to discuss miRNA biogenesis and function, as well as highlight strategies for delivering miRNA agents, presenting viral, non-viral, and exosomic delivery as therapeutic approaches for different cancer types. We also consider the therapeutic role of microRNA-mediated drug repurposing in cancer therapy.

Regulation and therapeutic potentials of microRNAs to non-small cell lung cancer

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the most common type of lung cancer, accounting for 80%-85% of total cases and leading to millions of deaths worldwide. Drug resistance is the primary cause of treatment failure in NSCLC, which urges scientists to develop advanced approaches for NSCLC treatment. Among novel approaches, the miRNA-based method has emerged as a potential approach as it allows researchers to modulate target gene expression. Subsequently, cell behaviors are altered, which leads to the death and the depletion of cancer cells. It has been reported that miRNAs possess the capacity to regulate multiple genes that are involved in various signaling pathways, including the phosphoinositide 3-kinase, receptor tyrosine kinase/rat sarcoma virus/mitogen-activated protein kinase, wingless/integrated, retinoblastoma, p53, transforming growth factor β, and nuclear factor-kappa B pathways. Dysregulation of these signaling pathways in NSCLC results in abnormal cell proliferation, tissue invasion, and drug resistance while inhibiting apoptosis. Thus, understanding the roles of miRNAs in regulating these signaling pathways may enable the development of novel NSCLC treatment therapies. However, a comprehensive review of potential miRNAs in NSCLC treatment has been lacking. Therefore, this review aims to fill the gap by summarizing the up-to-date information on miRNAs regarding their targets, impact on cancer-associated pathways, and prospective outcomes in treating NSCLC. We also discuss current technologies for delivering miRNAs to the target cells, including virus-based, non-viral, and emerging extracellular vesicle-based delivery systems. This knowledge will support future studies to develop an innovative miRNA-based therapy and select a suitable carrier to treat NSCLC effectively.

Engineering HEK293T cell line by lentivirus to produce miR34a-loaded exosomes

BACKGROUND

RNA (ribonucleic acid) antisense is developing as a possible treatment option. As an RNA, miR-34a is involved in P53 function and cancer cell apoptosis. Although the therapeutic applications of miRNAs have several limitations, such as structural instability and susceptibility to nucleases. To resolve these issues, this study aims to apply exosomes as a delivery vehicle for miR-34a.

AIMS

This study aims to create a cell factory to generate miR34a-enriched exosomes. The produced nanoparticles act as a delivery system and improve the structural stability of miR34a.

METHODS

First exosome specific sequences were inserted into miR34a. The resulting miR34a oligonucleotide was transduced HEK293T cells genome with a lentiviral system. In the structure of miR34a oligonucleotide, six nucleotides were substituted to increase its packaging rate into exosomes. To maintain the secondary structure, stability, and expression of the miRNA gene, changes to the miR34a oligonucleotide were made using PCR (polymerase chain reaction) Extension. The forward-34a (5-TGGGGAGAGGCAGGACAGG-3) and Reverse-34a primers (5-TCCGAAGTCCTGGCGTCTCC-3) were used for amplification of the miR34a gene from DNA.

RESULTS

The results confirmed that the changes in miR34a oligonucleotide do not affect its secondary structure. The energy level of the manipulated miR34a oligonucleotide was kept the same compared to the original one. Moreover, the loading of miR34a to the exosomes was increased.

CONCLUSION

Our findings revealed that normal HEK293T did not express miR34a. However, lentiviral transduced miR34a oligonucleotide induced the loading of miR34a into the exosome. Moreover, replacing six nucleic acids in the 3' end of miR34a increased the loading of miR34a to exosome.

MicroRNA-Mediated Regulation of Histone-Modifying Enzymes in Cancer: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Implications

In the past decade, significant advances in molecular research have provided a deeper understanding of the intricate regulatory mechanisms involved in carcinogenesis. MicroRNAs, short non-coding RNA sequences, exert substantial influence on gene expression by repressing translation or inducing mRNA degradation. In the context of cancer, miRNA dysregulation is prevalent and closely associated with various stages of carcinogenesis, including initiation, progression, and metastasis. One crucial aspect of the cancer phenotype is the activity of histone-modifying enzymes that govern chromatin accessibility for transcription factors, thus impacting gene expression. Recent studies have revealed that miRNAs play a significant role in modulating these histone-modifying enzymes, leading to significant implications for genes related to proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis in cancer cells. This article provides an overview of current research on the mechanisms by which miRNAs regulate the activity of histone-modifying enzymes in the context of cancer. Both direct and indirect mechanisms through which miRNAs influence enzyme expression are discussed. Additionally, potential therapeutic implications arising from miRNA manipulation to selectively impact histone-modifying enzyme activity are presented. The insights from this analysis hold significant therapeutic promise, suggesting the utility of miRNAs as tools for the precise regulation of chromatin-related processes and gene expression. A contemporary focus on molecular regulatory mechanisms opens therapeutic pathways that can effectively influence the control of tumor cell growth and dissemination.

MicroRNA targeting: A novel therapeutic intervention for ovarian cancer

Ovarian cancer, a perilous form of cancer affecting the female reproductive system, exhibits intricate communication networks that contribute to its progression. This study aims to identify crucial molecular abnormalities linked to the disease to enhance diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. In particular, we investigate the role of microRNAs (miRNAs) as diagnostic biomarkers and explore their potential in treating ovarian cancer. By targeting miRNAs, which can influence multiple pathways and genes, substantial therapeutic benefits can be attained. In this review we want to shed light on the promising application of miRNA-based interventions and provide insights into the specific miRNAs implicated in ovarian cancer pathogenesis.

Recent advances in novel miRNA mediated approaches for targeting breast cancer

Breast cancer (BC) is considered one of the most frequent cancers among woman worldwide. While conventional therapy has been successful in treating many cases of breast cancer, drug resistance, heterogenicity, tumour features and recurrence, invasion, metastasis and the presence of breast cancer stem cells can hinder the effect of treatments, and can reduce the quality of life of patients. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are short non-coding RNA molecules that play a crucial role in the development and progression of breast cancer. Several studies have reported that aberrant expression of specific miRNAs is associated with the pathogenesis of breast cancer. However, miRNAs are emerging as potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets for breast cancer. Understanding their role in breast cancer biology could help develop more effective treatments for this disease. The present study discusses the biogenesis and function of miRNAs, as well as miRNA therapy approaches for targeting and treating breast cancer cells.

The molecular basis of tumor metastasis and current approaches to decode targeted migration-promoting events in pediatric neuroblastoma

Cell motility is a crucial biological process that plays a critical role in the development of multicellular organisms and is essential for tissue formation and regeneration. However, uncontrolled cell motility can lead to the development of various diseases, including neoplasms. In this review, we discuss recent advances in the discovery of regulatory mechanisms underlying the metastatic spread of neuroblastoma, a solid pediatric tumor that originates in the embryonic migratory cells of the neural crest. The highly motile phenotype of metastatic neuroblastoma cells requires targeting of intracellular and extracellular processes, that, if affected, would be helpful for the treatment of high-risk patients with neuroblastoma, for whom current therapies remain inadequate. Development of new potentially migration-inhibiting compounds and standardized preclinical approaches for the selection of anti-metastatic drugs in neuroblastoma will also be discussed.

Circulating microRNAs as Potential Biomarkers in Pancreatic Cancer-Advances and Challenges

There is an urgent unmet need for robust and reliable biomarkers for early diagnosis, prognosis, and prediction of response to specific treatments of many aggressive and deadly cancers, such as pancreatic cancer, and liquid biopsy-based miRNA profiling has the potential for this. MiRNAs are a subset of non-coding RNAs that regulate the expression of a multitude of genes post-transcriptionally and thus are potential diagnostic, prognostic, and predictive biomarkers and have also emerged as potential therapeutics. Because miRNAs are involved in the post-transcriptional regulation of their target mRNAs via repressing gene expression, defects in miRNA biogenesis pathway and miRNA expression perturb the expression of a multitude of oncogenic or tumor-suppressive genes that are involved in the pathogenesis of various cancers. As such, numerous miRNAs have been identified to be downregulated or upregulated in many cancers, functioning as either oncomes or oncosuppressor miRs. Moreover, dysregulation of miRNA biogenesis pathways can also change miRNA expression and function in cancer. Profiling of dysregulated miRNAs in pancreatic cancer has been shown to correlate with disease diagnosis, indicate optimal treatment options and predict response to a specific therapy. Specific miRNA signatures can track the stages of pancreatic cancer and hold potential as diagnostic, prognostic, and predictive markers, as well as therapeutics such as miRNA mimics and miRNA inhibitors (antagomirs). Furthermore, identified specific miRNAs and genes they regulate in pancreatic cancer along with downstream pathways can be used as potential therapeutic targets. However, a limited understanding and validation of the specific roles of miRNAs, lack of tissue specificity, methodological, technical, or analytical reproducibility, harmonization of miRNA isolation and quantification methods, the use of standard operating procedures, and the availability of automated and standardized assays to improve reproducibility between independent studies limit bench-to-bedside translation of the miRNA biomarkers for clinical applications. Here I review recent findings on miRNAs in pancreatic cancer pathogenesis and their potential as diagnostic, prognostic, and predictive markers.

Research Progress of Macromolecules in the Prevention and Treatment of Sepsis

Sepsis is associated with high rates of mortality in the intensive care unit and accompanied by systemic inflammatory reactions, secondary infections, and multiple organ failure. Biological macromolecules are drugs produced using modern biotechnology to prevent or treat diseases. Indeed, antithrombin, antimicrobial peptides, interleukins, antibodies, nucleic acids, and lentinan have been used to prevent and treat sepsis. In vitro, biological macromolecules can significantly ameliorate the inflammatory response, apoptosis, and multiple organ failure caused by sepsis. Several biological macromolecules have entered clinical trials. This review summarizes the sources, efficacy, mechanism of action, and research progress of macromolecular drugs used in the prevention and treatment of sepsis.

Cationic Calix[4]arene Vectors to Efficiently Deliver AntimiRNA Peptide Nucleic Acids (PNAs) and miRNA Mimics

One of the most appealing approaches for regulating gene expression, named the "microRNA therapeutic" method, is based on the regulation of the activity of microRNAs (miRNAs), the intracellular levels of which are dysregulated in many diseases, including cancer. This can be achieved by miRNA inhibition with antimiRNA molecules in the case of overexpressed microRNAs, or by using miRNA-mimics to restore downregulated microRNAs that are associated with the target disease. The development of new efficient, low-toxic, and targeted vectors of such molecules represents a key topic in the field of the pharmacological modulation of microRNAs. We compared the delivery efficiency of a small library of cationic calix[4]arene vectors complexed with fluorescent antimiRNA molecules (Peptide Nucleic Acids, PNAs), pre-miRNA (microRNA precursors), and mature microRNAs, in glioma- and colon-cancer cellular models. The transfection was assayed by cytofluorimetry, cell imaging assays, and RT-qPCR. The calix[4]arene-based vectors were shown to be powerful tools to facilitate the uptake of both neutral (PNAs) and negatively charged (pre-miRNAs and mature microRNAs) molecules showing low toxicity in transfected cells and ability to compete with commercially available vectors in terms of delivery efficiency. These results could be of great interest to validate microRNA therapeutics approaches for future application in personalized treatment and precision medicine.

Nanoscale Phytosomes as an Emerging Modality for Cancer Therapy

Extracellular vesicle (EV) research has expanded substantially over the years. EVs have been identified in all living organisms and are produced and released as a means of intercellular communication or as a defense mechanism. Recently, nano-scaled vesicles were successfully isolated from edible plant sources. Plant-derived EVs, referred to here as phytosomes, are of a size reported to range between 30 nm and 120 nm in diameter, similar to small mammalian extracellular vesicles, and carry various bioactive molecules such as mRNA, proteins, miRNA and lipids. Due to the availability of many plants, phytosomes can be easily isolated on a large scale. The methods developed for EV isolation from mammalian cells have been successfully applied for isolation and purification of phytosomes. The therapeutic effects of phytosomes on different disease models, such as inflammation and autoimmune disease, have been reported, and a handful of studies have suggested their therapeutic effects on cancer diseases. Overall, the research on phytosomes is still in its infancy and requires more exploration. This review will narrate the anti-cancer activity and characteristics of phytosomes derived from edible plants as well as describe studies which have utilized phytosomes as drug delivery vehicles for cancer with the ultimate objective of significantly reducing the adverse effects associated with conventional therapeutic approaches.

Applications of nanotechnologies for miRNA-based cancer therapeutics: current advances and future perspectives

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are short (18-25 nt), non-coding, widely conserved RNA molecules responsible for regulating gene expression via sequence-specific post-transcriptional mechanisms. Since the human miRNA transcriptome regulates the expression of a number of tumor suppressors and oncogenes, its dysregulation is associated with the clinical onset of different types of cancer. Despite the fact that numerous therapeutic approaches have been designed in recent years to treat cancer, the complexity of the disease manifested by each patient has prevented the development of a highly effective disease management strategy. However, over the past decade, artificial miRNAs (i.e., anti-miRNAs and miRNA mimics) have shown promising results against various cancer types; nevertheless, their targeted delivery could be challenging. Notably, numerous reports have shown that nanotechnology-based delivery of miRNAs can greatly contribute to hindering cancer initiation and development processes, representing an innovative disease-modifying strategy against cancer. Hence, in this review, we evaluate recently developed nanotechnology-based miRNA drug delivery systems for cancer therapeutics and discuss the potential challenges and future directions, such as the promising use of plant-made nanoparticles, phytochemical-mediated modulation of miRNAs, and nanozymes.

Targeting miRNA by CRISPR/Cas in cancer: advantages and challenges

Clustered regulatory interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) has changed biomedical research and provided entirely new models to analyze every aspect of biomedical sciences during the last decade. In the study of cancer, the CRISPR/CRISPR-associated protein (Cas) system opens new avenues into issues that were once unknown in our knowledge of the noncoding genome, tumor heterogeneity, and precision medicines. CRISPR/Cas-based gene-editing technology now allows for the precise and permanent targeting of mutations and provides an opportunity to target small non-coding RNAs such as microRNAs (miRNAs). However, the development of effective and safe cancer gene editing therapy is highly dependent on proper design to be innocuous to normal cells and prevent introducing other abnormalities. This study aims to highlight the cutting-edge approaches in cancer-gene editing therapy based on the CRISPR/Cas technology to target miRNAs in cancer therapy. Furthermore, we highlight the potential challenges in CRISPR/Cas-mediated miRNA gene editing and offer advanced strategies to overcome them.

Framework Nucleic Acid-Based Multifunctional Tumor Theranostic Nanosystem for miRNA Fluorescence Imaging and Chemo/Gene Therapy

Intelligent stimulus-responsive theranostic systems capable of specifically sensing low-abundance tumor-related biomarkers and efficiently killing tumors remain a pressing endeavor. Here, we report a multifunctional framework nucleic acid (FNA) nanosystem for simultaneous imaging of microRNA-21 (miR-21) and combined chemo/gene therapy. To achieve this, two FNA nanoarchitectures labeled with Cy5/BHQ2 signal tags were designed, each of which contained an AS1411 aptamer, two pairs of DNA/RNA hybrids, a pH-sensitive DNA catcher, and doxorubicin (DOX) intercalating between cytosine and guanine in the tetrahedral DNA nanostructure (TDN). In the acidic tumor microenvironment, the DNA catchers spontaneously triggered to form an i-motif and create an FNA dimer (dFNA) while releasing DOX molecules to exert a cytotoxic effect. In addition, the overexpressed miR-21 in tumor cells dismantled the DNA/RNA hybrids to produce vascular endothelial growth factor-associated siRNA via a toehold-mediated strand displacement reaction, thus enabling a potent RNA interfering. Also importantly, the liberated miR-21 could initiate cascade-reaction amplification to efficiently activate the Cy5 signal reporters, thereby realizing on-site fluorescence imaging of miR-21 in living cells. The exquisitely designed FNA-based nanosystem showed favorable biocompatibility and stability as well as acid-driven DOX release characteristics. Owing to the aptamer-guided targeting delivery, specific uptake of the FNA-based theranostic nanosystem by HepG2 cells was verified with confocal laser scanning microscopy and flow cytometry analyses, which therefore resulted in apoptosis of HepG2 cells while doing minimal damage to normal H9c2 and HL-7702 cells. Strikingly, both in vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrated the achievements of the FNA-enabled miR-21 imaging and synergistically enhanced chemo/gene therapy. This work thus represents a noteworthy advance on the FNA-based theranostic strategy that can effectively avoid the undesirable premature leakage of anticarcinogen and off-target of siRNA, and achieve on-demand reagents release for tumor diagnostics and treatment.

Amplifying gene expression with RNA-targeted therapeutics

Many diseases are caused by insufficient expression of mutated genes and would benefit from increased expression of the corresponding protein. However, in drug development, it has been historically easier to develop drugs with inhibitory or antagonistic effects. Protein replacement and gene therapy can achieve the goal of increased protein expression but have limitations. Recent discoveries of the extensive regulatory networks formed by non-coding RNAs offer alternative targets and strategies to amplify the production of a specific protein. In addition to RNA-targeting small molecules, new nucleic acid-based therapeutic modalities that allow highly specific modulation of RNA-based regulatory networks are being developed. Such approaches can directly target the stability of mRNAs or modulate non-coding RNA-mediated regulation of transcription and translation. This Review highlights emerging RNA-targeted therapeutics for gene activation, focusing on opportunities and challenges for translation to the clinic.

Comprehensive analysis on the diagnostic role of circulatory exosome-based miR-92a-3p for osteoblastic metastases in prostate adenocarcinoma

Prostate adenocarcinoma (PRAD) is the second leading cause of death in men and the key factor that attributes to the severity and higher mortality rates is the tumor's ability to promote osteoblastic metastases (OM). Currently, no blood-based biomarkers are present that bridges the crosstalk between PRAD and OM progression. Conversely, circulatory microRNAs (miRNAs) are gaining interest among the scientific community for its potential as blood-based markers for cancer detection. Using computational pipeline, this study screened exosome-based miRNA that is functionally regulating OM in PRAD. We retrieved the expression profile of miRNA, mRNA from PRAD microarray, and RNA-Seq samples deposited in global repositories and identified the differentially expressed miRNAs (DEMs) and differentially expressed genes. Thereafter, the average expression of the miRNAs was identified in extracellular vesicle specifically in exosomes. Survival analysis and clinical profiling identified functionally significant miR-92a-3p to be a key factor in OM. This was further examined by the interactions with various noncoding RNA elements, transcription factors, oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, and protein kinases regulated by miR-92a-3p. Identifying the expression pattern, nodal metastasis, Gleason score, and hazard ratio deciphered the critical role of the targets regulated by miR-92a-3p. Further, binding association analyzed through energy, seed match and accessibility showed the miRNA-targets involved in cytokine, TGF-β, and Wnt signaling having close regulatory role in promoting OM. Our findings highlight the potent role of miR-92a-3p as blood-based diagnostic biomarker for OM. The comprehensive insights from our study can be elemental in designing diagnostic biomarker for PRAD.

Therapeutic targeting approach on epithelial-mesenchymal plasticity to combat cancer metastasis

Epithelial-mesenchymal plasticity (EMP) is a process in which epithelial cells lose their characteristics and acquire mesenchymal properties, leading to increased motility and invasiveness, which are key factors in cancer metastasis. Targeting EMP has emerged as a promising therapeutic approach to combat cancer metastasis. Various strategies have been developed to target EMP, including inhibition of key signaling pathways, such as TGF-β, Wnt/β-catenin, and Notch, that regulate EMP, as well as targeting specific transcription factors, such as Snail, Slug, and Twist, that promote EMP. Additionally, targeting the tumor microenvironment, which plays a critical role in promoting EMP, has also shown promise. Several preclinical and clinical studies have demonstrated the efficacy of EMP-targeting therapies in inhibiting cancer metastasis. However, further research is needed to optimize these strategies and improve their clinical efficacy. Overall, therapeutic targeting of EMP represents a promising approach for the development of novel cancer therapies that can effectively inhibit metastasis, a major cause of cancer-related mortality.

MicroRNA-483-5p Inhibits Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cell Proliferation, Cell Steatosis, and Fibrosis by Targeting PPARα and TIMP2

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNA molecules that bind with the 3′ untranslated regions (UTRs) of genes to regulate expression. Downregulation of miR-483-5p (miR-483) is associated with the progression of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, the significant roles of miR-483 in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), alcoholic fatty liver diseases (AFLD), and HCC remain elusive. In the current study, we investigated the biological significance of miR-483 in NAFLD, AFLD, and HCC in vitro and in vivo. The downregulation of miR-483 expression in HCC patients’ tumor samples was associated with Notch 3 upregulation. Overexpression of miR-483 in a human bipotent progenitor liver cell line HepaRG and HCC cells dysregulated Notch signaling, inhibited cell proliferation/migration, induced apoptosis, and increased sensitivity towards antineoplastic agents sorafenib/regorafenib. Interestingly, the inactivation of miR-483 upregulated cell steatosis and fibrosis signaling by modulation of lipogenic and fibrosis gene expression. Mechanistically, miR-483 targets PPARα and TIMP2 gene expression, which leads to the suppression of cell steatosis and fibrosis. The downregulation of miR-483 was observed in mice liver fed with a high-fat diet (HFD) or a standard Lieber-Decarli liquid diet containing 5% alcohol, leading to increased hepatic steatosis/fibrosis. Our data suggest that miR-483 inhibits cell steatosis and fibrogenic signaling and functions as a tumor suppressor in HCC. Therefore, miR-483 may be a novel therapeutic target for NAFLD/AFLD/HCC management in patients with fatty liver diseases and HCC.

Diabetic cardiomyopathy: The role of microRNAs and long non-coding RNAs

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is on the rise, necessitating the development of novel therapeutic and preventive strategies to mitigate the disease's debilitating effects. Diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCMP) is among the leading causes of morbidity and mortality in diabetic patients globally. DCMP manifests as cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, apoptosis, and myocardial interstitial fibrosis before progressing to heart failure. Evidence suggests that non-coding RNAs, such as long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs), regulate diabetic cardiomyopathy-related processes such as insulin resistance, cardiomyocyte apoptosis and inflammation, emphasizing their heart-protective effects. This paper reviewed the literature data from animal and human studies on the non-trivial roles of miRNAs and lncRNAs in the context of DCMP in diabetes and demonstrated their future potential in DCMP treatment in diabetic patients.

Non-Coding RNAs Modulating Estrogen Signaling and Response to Endocrine Therapy in Breast Cancer

The largest part of human DNA is transcribed into RNA that does not code for proteins. These non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) are key regulators of protein-coding gene expression and have been shown to play important roles in health, disease and therapy response. Today, endocrine therapy of ERα-positive breast cancer (BC) is a successful treatment approach, but resistance to this therapy is a major clinical problem. Therefore, a deeper understanding of resistance mechanisms is important to overcome this resistance. An increasing amount of evidence demonstrate that ncRNAs affect the response to endocrine therapy. Thus, ncRNAs are considered versatile biomarkers to predict or monitor therapy response. In this review article, we intend to give a summary and update on the effects of microRNAs (miRNAs), long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and circular RNAs (circRNAs) on estrogen signaling in BC cells, this pathway being the target of endocrine therapy, and their role in therapy resistance. For this purpose, we reviewed articles on these topics listed in the PubMed database. Finally, we provide an assessment regarding the clinical use of these ncRNA types, particularly their circulating forms, as predictive BC biomarkers and their potential role as therapy targets to overcome endocrine resistance.

Druggable Biomarkers Altered in Clear Cell Renal Cell Carcinoma: Strategy for the Development of Mechanism-Based Combination Therapy

Targeted therapeutics made significant advances in the treatment of patients with advanced clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC). Resistance and serious adverse events associated with standard therapy of patients with advanced ccRCC highlight the need to identify alternative 'druggable' targets to those currently under clinical development. Although the Von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) and Polybromo1 (PBRM1) tumor-suppressor genes are the two most frequently mutated genes and represent the hallmark of the ccRCC phenotype, stable expression of hypoxia-inducible factor-1α/2α (HIFs), microRNAs-210 and -155 (miR_S), transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-ß), nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), and thymidine phosphorylase (TP) are targets overexpressed in the majority of ccRCC tumors. Collectively, these altered biomarkers are highly interactive and are considered master regulators of processes implicated in increased tumor angiogenesis, metastasis, drug resistance, and immune evasion. In recognition of the therapeutic potential of the indicated biomarkers, considerable efforts are underway to develop therapeutically effective and selective inhibitors of individual targets. It was demonstrated that HIF_S, miR_S, Nrf2, and TGF-ß are targeted by a defined dose and schedule of a specific type of selenium-containing molecules, seleno-L-methionine (SLM) and methylselenocystein (MSC). Collectively, the demonstrated pleiotropic effects of selenium were associated with the normalization of tumor vasculature, and enhanced drug delivery and distribution to tumor tissue, resulting in enhanced efficacy of multiple chemotherapeutic drugs and biologically targeted molecules. Higher selenium doses than those used in clinical prevention trials inhibit multiple targets altered in ccRCC tumors, which could offer the potential for the development of a new and novel therapeutic modality for cancer patients with similar selenium target expression. Better understanding of the underlying mechanisms of selenium modulation of specific targets altered in ccRCC could potentially have a significant impact on the development of a more efficacious and selective mechanism-based combination for the treatment of patients with cancer.

MicroRNA Profiling of Cell Lines and Xenografts by Quantitative PCR : MicroRNA Expression Level Determination by qPCR

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that play essential roles in regulating gene expression at the post-transcriptional level, possibly at any level of the cellular physiology. Furthermore, their deregulation has been observed in a myriad of human diseases including cancer. Therefore, miRNA-based therapies are directed to inhibit the function of oncogenic miRNA or to restore the function of tumor-suppressive miRNAs. Here, we describe how to analyze miRNA levels after the transfection of miRNAs of interest using different transfection reagents or intravenous administration of miRNAs conjugated to lipid nanoparticles in cell lines and in mouse xenograft models.

miRNA-195-5p/PSAT1 feedback loop in human triple-negative breast cancer cells

BACKGROUND

Substantial evidence suggests that non-coding RNAs, such as microRNAs (miRNAs), play a vital role in human cancer. Phosphoserine aminotransferase 1 (PSAT1) is a serine biosynthesis-related member of the aminotransferase family and is closely associated with worse prognosis in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC).

OBJECTIVE

The present study elucidated the molecular mechanisms underlying PSAT1 regulation by miRNAs in TNBC.

METHODS

After collecting breast cancer and para-cancerous tissues, expression and functional testing of microRNA-195-5p (miR-195-5p) and PSAT1 were implemented both in vivo and in vitro.

RESULTS

Abnormally low miR-195-5p expression was confirmed in TNBC tissues and cells. The specific targeting effect of miR-195-5p on PSAT1 was screened. Our observations revealed that biological tumor behavior was inhibited after miR-195-5p upregulation and this inhibition could be reversed by PSAT1 overexpression both in vivo and in vitro.

CONCLUSION

Our study revealed the regulatory axis of miR-195-5p/PSAT1 in TNBC, suggesting a promising targeted therapy for clinical application.

Resistance-proof antimicrobial drug discovery to combat global antimicrobial resistance threat

Drug resistance is well-defined as a serious problem in our living world. To survive, microbes develop defense strategies against antimicrobial drugs. Drugs exhibit less or no effective results against microbes after the emergence of resistance because they are unable to cross the microbial membrane, in order to alter enzymatic systems, and/or upregulate efflux pumps, etc. Drug resistance issues can be addressed effectively if a "Resistance-Proof" or "Resistance-Resistant" antimicrobial agent is developed. This article discusses first the need for resistance-proof drugs, the imminent properties of resistance-proof drugs, current and future research progress in the discovery of resistance-proof antimicrobials, the inherent challenges, and opportunities. A molecule having imminent resistance-proof properties could target microbes efficiently, increase potency, and rule out the possibility of early resistance. This review triggers the scientific community to think about how an upsurge in drug resistance can be averted and emphasizes the discussion on the development of next-generation antimicrobials that will provide a novel effective solution to combat the global problem of drug resistance. Hence, resistance-proof drug development is not just a requirement but rather a compulsion in the drug discovery field so that resistance can be battled effectively. We discuss several properties of resistance-proof drugs which could initiate new ways of thinking about next-generation antimicrobials to resolve the drug resistance problem. This article sheds light on the issues of drug resistance and discusses solutions in terms of the resistance-proof properties of a molecule. In summary, the article is a foundation to break new ground in the development of resistance-proof therapeutics in the field of infection biology.