Proteomics unite traditional toxicological assessment methods to evaluate the toxicity of iron oxide nanoparticles

Review on the role of autophagy in the toxicity of nanoparticles and the signaling pathways involved

As the development of nanotechnology, the application of nanoproducts and the advancement of nanomedicine, the contact of nanoparticles (NPs) with human body is becoming increasingly prevalent. This escalation elevates the risk of NPs exposure for workers, consumers, researchers, and both aquatic and terrestrial organisms throughout the production, usage, and disposal stages. Consequently, evaluating nanotoxicity remains critically important, though standardized assessment criteria are still lacking. The diverse and complex properties of NPs further complicate the understanding of their toxicological mechanisms. Autophagy, a fundamental cellular process, exhibits dual functions-both pro-survival and pro-death. This review offers an updated perspective on the dual roles of autophagy in nanotoxicity and examines the factors influencing autophagic responses. However, no definitive framework exists for predicting NPs-induced autophagy. Beyond the conventional autophagy pathways, the review highlights specific transcription factors activated by NPs and explores metabolic reprogramming. Particular attention is given to NPs-induced selective autophagy, including mitophagy, ER-phagy, ferritinophagy, lysophagy, and lipophagy. Additionally, the review investigates autophagy's involvement in NPs-mediated biological processes such as ferroptosis, inflammation, macrophage polarization, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, tumor cell proliferation and drug resistance, as well as liver and kidney injury, neurotoxicity, and other diseases. In summary, this review presents a novel update on selective autophagy-mediated nanotoxicity and elucidates the broader interactions of autophagy in NPs-induced biological processes. Collectively, these insights offer valuable strategies for mitigating nanotoxicity through autophagy modulation and advancing the development of NPs in biomedical applications.

Comparative transcriptomics revealed neurodevelopmental impairments and ferroptosis induced by extremely small iron oxide nanoparticles

Iron oxide nanoparticles are a type of nanomaterial composed of iron oxide (Fe3O4 or Fe2O3) and have a wide range of applications in magnetic resonance imaging. Compared to iron oxide nanoparticles, extremely small iron oxide nanoparticles (ESIONPs) (∼3 nm in diameter) can improve the imaging performance due to a smaller size. However, there are currently no reports on the potential toxic effects of ESIONPs on the human body. In this study, we applied ESIONPs to a zebrafish model and performed weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) on differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in zebrafish embryos of 48 hpf, 72 hpf, 96 hpf, and 120 hpf using RNA-seq technology. The key hub genes related to neurotoxicity and ferroptosis were identified, and further experiments also demonstrated that ESIONPs impaired the neuronal and muscle development of zebrafish, and induced ferroptosis, leading to oxidative stress, cell apoptosis, and inflammatory response. Here, for the first time, we analyzed the potential toxic effects of ESIONPs through WGCNA. Our studies indicate that ESIONPs might have neurotoxicity and could induce ferroptosis, while abnormal accumulation of iron ions might increase the risk of early degenerative neurological diseases.

Proteomics revealed composition- and size-related regulators for hepatic impairments induced by silica nanoparticles

Along with the growing production and application of silica nanoparticles (SiNPs), increased human exposure and ensuing safety evaluation have progressively attracted concern. Accumulative data evidenced the hepatic injuries upon SiNPs inhalation. Still, the understanding of the hepatic outcomes resulting from SiNPs exposure, and underlying mechanisms are incompletely elucidated. Here, SiNPs of two sizes (60 nm and 300 nm) were applied to investigate their composition- and size-related impacts on livers of ApoE-/- mice via intratracheal instillation. Histopathological and biochemical analysis indicated SiNPs promoted inflammation, lipid deposition and fibrosis in the hepatic tissue, accompanied by increased ALT, AST, TC and TG. Oxidative stress was activated upon SiNPs stimuli, as evidenced by the increased hepatic ROS, MDA and declined GSH/GSSG. Of note, these alterations were more dramatic in SiNPs with a smaller size (SiNPs-60) but the same dosage. LC-MS/MS-based quantitative proteomics unveiled changes in mice liver protein profiles, and filtered out particle composition- or size-related molecules. Interestingly, altered lipid metabolism and oxidative damage served as two critical biological processes. In accordance with correlation analysis and liver disease-targeting prediction, a final of 10 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) were selected as key potential targets attributable to composition- (4 molecules) and size-related (6 molecules) liver impairments upon SiNPs stimuli. Overall, our study provided strong laboratory evidence for a comprehensive understanding of the harmful biological effects of SiNPs, which was crucial for toxicological evaluation to ensure nanosafety.

Insights into the time-course cellular effects triggered by iron oxide nanoparticles by combining proteomics with the traditional pharmacology strategy

In recent years, a number of initially approved magnetic iron oxide nanoparticle (IONP)-based nano-medicines have been withdrawn due to the obscure nano-bio effects. Therefore, there is an urgent need to study the cellular effects triggered by IONPs on cells. In this study, we investigate the time-course cellular effects on the response of RAW 264.7 cells caused by Si-IONPs via pharmacological and mass spectrometry-based proteomics techniques. Our results revealed that Si-IONPs were internalized by clathrin-mediated endocytosis within 1 hour, and gradually degraded in endolysosomes over time, which might influence autophagy, oxidative stress, innate immune response, and inflammatory response after 12 hours. Our research provides a necessary assessment of Si-IONPs for further clinical treatment.

Biocompatibility and proteomic profiling of DMSA-coated iron nanocubes in a human glioblastoma cell line

Background: Superparamagnetic iron core iron oxide shell nanocubes have previously shown superior performance in magnetic resonance imaging T2 contrast enhancement compared with spherical nanoparticles. Methods: Iron core iron oxide shell nanocubes were synthesized, stabilized with dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA-NC) and physicochemically characterized. MRI contrast enhancement and biocompatibility were assessed in vitro. Results: DMSA-NC showed a transverse relaxivity of 122.59 mM-1·s-1 Fe. Treatment with DMSA-NC did not induce cytotoxicity or oxidative stress in U-251 cells, and electron microscopy demonstrated DMSA-NC localization within endosomes and lysosomes in cells following internalization. Global proteomics revealed dysregulation of iron storage, transport, transcription and mRNA processing proteins. Conclusion: DMSA-NC is a promising T2 MRI contrast agent which, in this preliminary investigation, demonstrates favorable biocompatibility with an astrocyte cell model.

Recent Advances in Drug Discovery Toxicology

Major advances in scientific discovery and insights that stem from the development and use of new techniques and models can bring remarkable progress to conventional toxicology. Although animal testing is still considered as the "gold standard" in traditional toxicity testing, there is a necessity for shift from animal testing to alternative methods regarding the drug safety testing owing to the emerging state-of-art techniques and the proposal of 3Rs (replace, reduce, and refine) towards animal welfare. This review describes some recent research methods in drug discovery toxicology, including in vitro cell and organ-on-a-chip, imaging systems, model organisms (C. elegans, Danio rerio, and Drosophila melanogaster), and toxicogenomics in modern toxicology testing.

Advances in smart delivery of magnetic field-targeted drugs in cardiovascular diseases

Magnetic Drug Targeting (MDT) is of particular interest to researchers because of its good loading efficiency, targeting accuracy, and versatile use in vivo. Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) is a global chronic disease with a high mortality rate, and the development of more precise and effective treatments is imminent. A growing number of studies have begun to explore the feasibility of MDT in CVD, but an up-to-date systematic summary is still lacking. This review discusses the current research status of MDT from guiding magnetic fields, magnetic nanocarriers, delivery channels, drug release control, and safety assessment. The current application status of MDT in CVD is also critically introduced. On this basis, new insights into the existing problems and future optimization directions of MDT are further highlighted.

Iron oxide nanoparticles trigger endoplasmic reticulum damage in steatotic hepatic cells

Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) are being actively researched in various biomedical applications, particularly as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents for diagnosing various liver pathologies like nonalcoholic fatty liver diseases, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, and cirrhosis. Emerging evidence suggests that IONPs may exacerbate hepatic steatosis and liver injury in susceptible livers such as those with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. However, our understanding of how IONPs may affect steatotic cells at the sub-cellular level is still fragmented. Generally, there is a lack of studies identifying the molecular mechanisms of potential toxic and/or adverse effects of IONPs on "non-heathy" in vitro models. In this study, we demonstrate that IONPs, at a dose that does not cause general toxicity in hepatic cells (Alexander and HepG2), induce significant toxicity in steatotic cells (cells loaded with non-toxic doses of palmitic acid). Mechanistically, co-treatment with PA and IONPs resulted in endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, accompanied by the release of cathepsin B from lysosomes to the cytosol. The release of cathepsin B, along with ER stress, led to the activation of apoptotic cell death. Our results suggest that it is necessary to consider the interaction between IONPs and the liver, especially in susceptible livers. This study provides important basic knowledge for the future optimization of IONPs as MRI contrast agents for various biomedical applications.

State of the Art of Genomic Technology in Toxicology: A Review

The rapid growth of genomics techniques has revolutionized and impacted, greatly and positively, the knowledge of toxicology, ushering it into a "new era": the era of genomic technology (GT). This great advance permits us to analyze the whole genome, to know the gene response to toxicants and environmental stressors, and to determine the specific profiles of gene expression, among many other approaches. The aim of this work was to compile and narrate the recent research on GT during the last 2 years (2020-2022). A literature search was managed using the PubMed and Medscape interfaces on the Medline database. Relevant articles published in peer-reviewed journals were retrieved and their main results and conclusions are mentioned briefly. It is quite important to form a multidisciplinary taskforce on GT with the aim of designing and implementing a comprehensive, collaborative, and a strategic work plan, prioritizing and assessing the most relevant diseases, so as to decrease human morbimortality due to exposure to environmental chemicals and stressors.

Lysosomal nanotoxicity: Impact of nanomedicines on lysosomal function

Although several nanomedicines got clinical approval over the past two decades, the clinical translation rate is relatively small so far. There are many post-surveillance withdrawals of nanomedicines caused by various safety issues. For successful clinical advancement of nanotechnology, it is of unmet need to realize cellular and molecular foundation of nanotoxicity. Current data suggest that lysosomal dysfunction caused by nanoparticles is emerging as the most common intracellular trigger of nanotoxicity. This review analyzes prospect mechanisms of lysosomal dysfunction-mediated toxicity induced by nanoparticles. We summarized and critically assessed adverse drug reactions of current clinically approved nanomedicines. Importantly, we show that physicochemical properties have great impact on nanoparticles interaction with cells, excretion route and kinetics, and subsequently on toxicity. We analyzed literature on adverse reactions of current nanomedicines and hypothesized that adverse reactions might be linked with lysosomal dysfunction caused by nanomedicines. Finally, from our analysis it becomes clear that it is unjustifiable to generalize safety and toxicity of nanoparticles, since different particles possess distinct toxicological properties. We propose that the biological mechanism of the disease progression and treatment should be central in the optimization of nanoparticle design.

Emergence of Raman Spectroscopy as a Probing Tool for Theranostics

Although medical advances have increased our grasp of the amazing morphological, genetic, and phenotypic diversity of diseases, there are still significant technological barriers to understanding their complex and dynamic character. Specifically, the complexities of the biological systems throw a diverse set of challenges in developing efficient theranostic tools and methodologies that can probe and treat pathologies. Among several emerging theranostic techniques such as photodynamic therapy, photothermal therapy, magnetic resonance imaging, and computed tomography, Raman spectroscopy (RS) is emerging as a promising tool that is a label-free, cost-effective, and non-destructive technique. It can also provide real-time diagnostic information and can employ multimodal probes for detection and therapy. These attributes make it a perfect candidate for the analytical counterpart of the existing theranostic probes. The use of biocompatible nanomaterials for the fabrication of Raman probes provides rich structural information about the biological molecules, cells, and tissues and highly sensitive information down to single-molecule levels when integrated with advanced RS tools. This review discusses the fundamentals of Raman spectroscopic tools such as surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy and Resonance Raman spectroscopy, their variants, and the associated theranostic applications. Besides the advantages, the current limitations, and future challenges of using RS in disease diagnosis and therapy have also been discussed.