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Arrhythmogenic Cardiomyopathy: Molecular Insights for Improved Therapeutic Design. J Cardiovasc Dev Dis 2020; 7:jcdd7020021. [PMID: 32466575 PMCID: PMC7345706 DOI: 10.3390/jcdd7020021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Revised: 05/17/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy (ACM) is an inherited disorder characterized by structural and electrical cardiac abnormalities, including myocardial fibro-fatty replacement. Its pathological ventricular substrate predisposes subjects to an increased risk of sudden cardiac death (SCD). ACM is a notorious cause of SCD in young athletes, and exercise has been documented to accelerate its progression. Although the genetic culprits are not exclusively limited to the intercalated disc, the majority of ACM-linked variants reside within desmosomal genes and are transmitted via Mendelian inheritance patterns; however, penetrance is highly variable. Its natural history features an initial “concealed phase” that results in patients being vulnerable to malignant arrhythmias prior to the onset of structural changes. Lack of effective therapies that target its pathophysiology renders management of patients challenging due to its progressive nature, and has highlighted a critical need to improve our understanding of its underlying mechanistic basis. In vitro and in vivo studies have begun to unravel the molecular consequences associated with disease causing variants, including altered Wnt/β-catenin signaling. Characterization of ACM mouse models has facilitated the evaluation of new therapeutic approaches. Improved molecular insight into the condition promises to usher in novel forms of therapy that will lead to improved care at the clinical bedside.
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Bradyarrhythmias in Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol 2019; 123:1690-1695. [PMID: 30885416 DOI: 10.1016/j.amjcard.2019.02.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2018] [Revised: 02/13/2019] [Accepted: 02/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Less is known about bradyarrhythmias in arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC). This cross-sectional study aimed to assess the prevalence and clinical significance of bradyarrhythmias in ARVC. From May 1995 to December 2017, bradyarrhythmias including sick sinus syndrome, atrioventricular block, and intraventricular conductional block (ICB) were investigated in 522 ARVC patients. A total of 169 patients (32.4%) presented with bradyarrhythmias including sick sinus syndrome in18 (3.5%), atrioventricular block in 56 (10.7%), and ICB in 118 patients (22.6%). Multivariate analysis showed right atrial dilation increased the risk of bradyarrhythmias (odds ratio [OR] 1.641, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.081 to 2.492, p= 0.020). Bradyarrhythmias were not associated with death and heart transplantation. In patients with bradyarrhythmias, female gender, left atrial diameter >40 mm, and New York Heart Association Ⅲ/Ⅳ increased the risk of death and heart transplantation (hazards ratio [HR] = 2.790, 95% CI 1.220 to 6.377, p = 0.015; HR = 4.913, 95% CI 2.058 to 11.730, p <0.001; HR = 3.223, 95% CI 1.246 to 8.340, p = 0.016). Among the 23 patients who underwent device implantation, left atrial diameter >40mm was associated with death and heart transplantation (HR = 9.523, 95% CI 1.587 to 57.126, p = 0.014). In conclusion, bradyarrhythmias were commonly seen in ARVC, and ICB was the most common type. Female, left atrial diameter >40 mm, and NYHA class were associated with death and heart transplantation.
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Castellana S, Mastroianno S, Palumbo P, Palumbo O, Biagini T, Leone MP, De Luca G, Potenza DR, Amico CM, Mazza T, Russo A, Di Stolfo G, Carella M. Sudden death in mild hypertrophic cardiomyopathy with compound DSG2/DSC2/MYH6 mutations: Revisiting phenotype after genetic assessment in a master runner athlete. J Electrocardiol 2019; 53:95-99. [PMID: 30716529 DOI: 10.1016/j.jelectrocard.2019.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2018] [Revised: 12/19/2018] [Accepted: 01/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Cardiomyopathies represent a well-known cause of heart failure and sudden death. Although cardiomyopathies are generally categorized in distinct nosographic entities, characterized by single gene-to-disease causal relationships, recently, oligogenic mutations have also been associated to relevant cardiac clinical features. We report the case of a master athlete carrying trigenic mutations in desmoglein-2 (DSG2), desmocollin-2 (DSC2) and heavy chain myosin 6 (MYH6), which determine a mild hypertrophic phenotype associated both to ventricular tachyarrhythmias and atrio-ventricular block. We discuss the differential diagnosis and prognostic approach in patient affected by complex cardiomyopathy phenotype, along with the importance of sport restriction and sudden death prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Castellana
- Bioinformatics Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, 71013 San Giovanni Rotondo, (FG), Italy
| | - Sandra Mastroianno
- Cardiovascular Department, Fondazione IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, 71013 San Giovanni Rotondo, (FG), Italy
| | - Pietro Palumbo
- Division of Medical Genetics, Fondazione IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, 71013 San Giovanni Rotondo, (FG), Italy
| | - Orazio Palumbo
- Division of Medical Genetics, Fondazione IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, 71013 San Giovanni Rotondo, (FG), Italy
| | - Tommaso Biagini
- Bioinformatics Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, 71013 San Giovanni Rotondo, (FG), Italy
| | - Maria Pia Leone
- Division of Medical Genetics, Fondazione IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, 71013 San Giovanni Rotondo, (FG), Italy
| | - Giovanni De Luca
- Cardiovascular Department, Fondazione IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, 71013 San Giovanni Rotondo, (FG), Italy
| | - Domenico Rosario Potenza
- Cardiovascular Department, Fondazione IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, 71013 San Giovanni Rotondo, (FG), Italy
| | - Cesare Maria Amico
- Cardiovascular Department, Fondazione IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, 71013 San Giovanni Rotondo, (FG), Italy
| | - Tommaso Mazza
- Bioinformatics Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, 71013 San Giovanni Rotondo, (FG), Italy
| | - Aldo Russo
- Cardiovascular Department, Fondazione IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, 71013 San Giovanni Rotondo, (FG), Italy
| | - Giuseppe Di Stolfo
- Cardiovascular Department, Fondazione IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, 71013 San Giovanni Rotondo, (FG), Italy
| | - Massimo Carella
- Division of Medical Genetics, Fondazione IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, 71013 San Giovanni Rotondo, (FG), Italy.
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Frey L, Bandaru P, Zhang YS, O’Kelly K, Khademhosseini A, Shin SR. A Dual-layered Microfluidic System for Long-term Controlled In Situ Delivery of Multiple Anti-inflammatory Factors for Chronic Neural Applications. ADVANCED FUNCTIONAL MATERIALS 2018; 28:1702009. [PMID: 32774196 PMCID: PMC7413620 DOI: 10.1002/adfm.201702009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
We report the development of a microfluidic system capable of repeated infusions of anti-inflammatory factors post-implantation for use as a coating for neural probes. This system consists of a microchannel in a thin gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA)-polyethylene glycol (PEG) composite hydrogel surrounded by a porous polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) membrane, where the hydrogel can be dried to increase the stiffness for easy insertion. Reswelling allowed us to perfuse interleukin (IL)-4 and dexamethasone (DEX) as anti-inflammatory factors through the channel with minimal burst release and significant amounts of IL-4 were observed to release for up to 96 hr post-infusion. Repeated injections of IL-4 increased the ratio of prohealing M2 versus proinflammatory M1 phenotypes of macrophages encapsulated in the hydrogel by six fold compared with a single injection, over a 2-week period. These repeated infusions also significantly downregulated the expression of inflammatory markers tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and IL-6 in astrocytes encapsulated in hydrogel. To demonstrate the system as a coating of neural probe for in vivo applications, we further fabricated a prototype device, where a thin dual-layered microfluidic system was integrated onto a metal probe. Such a drug delivery system could help reduce the formation of a glial scar around neural probes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Frey
- Biomaterials Innovation Research Center, Division of Engineering in Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02139, USA
- Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
- Trinity Centre of Bioengineering, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Praveen Bandaru
- Biomaterials Innovation Research Center, Division of Engineering in Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02139, USA
- Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Yu Shrike Zhang
- Biomaterials Innovation Research Center, Division of Engineering in Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02139, USA
- Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Kevin O’Kelly
- Biomaterials Innovation Research Center, Division of Engineering in Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02139, USA
- Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
- Trinity Centre of Bioengineering, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Ali Khademhosseini
- Biomaterials Innovation Research Center, Division of Engineering in Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02139, USA
- Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Su Ryon Shin
- Biomaterials Innovation Research Center, Division of Engineering in Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02139, USA
- Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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Mezzano V, Liang Y, Wright AT, Lyon RC, Pfeiffer E, Song MY, Gu Y, Dalton ND, Scheinman M, Peterson KL, Evans SM, Fowler S, Cerrone M, McCulloch AD, Sheikh F. Desmosomal junctions are necessary for adult sinus node function. Cardiovasc Res 2016; 111:274-86. [PMID: 27097650 DOI: 10.1093/cvr/cvw083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2015] [Accepted: 04/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS Current mechanisms driving cardiac pacemaker function have focused on ion channel and gap junction channel function, which are essential for action potential generation and propagation between pacemaker cells. However, pacemaker cells also harbour desmosomes that structurally anchor pacemaker cells to each other in tissue, but their role in pacemaker function remains unknown. METHODS AND RESULTS To determine the role of desmosomes in pacemaker function, we generated a novel mouse model harbouring cardiac conduction-specific ablation (csKO) of the central desmosomal protein, desmoplakin (DSP) using the Hcn4-Cre-ERT2 mouse line. Hcn4-Cre targets cells of the adult mouse sinoatrial node (SAN) and can ablate DSP expression in the adult DSP csKO SAN resulting in specific loss of desmosomal proteins and structures. Dysregulation of DSP via loss-of-function (adult DSP csKO mice) and mutation (clinical case of a patient harbouring a pathogenic DSP variant) in mice and man, respectively, revealed that desmosomal dysregulation is associated with a primary phenotype of increased sinus pauses/dysfunction in the absence of cardiomyopathy. Underlying defects in beat-to-beat regulation were also observed in DSP csKO mice in vivo and intact atria ex vivo. DSP csKO SAN exhibited migrating lead pacemaker sites associated with connexin 45 loss. In vitro studies exploiting ventricular cardiomyocytes that harbour DSP loss and concurrent early connexin loss phenocopied the loss of beat-to-beat regulation observed in DSP csKO mice and atria, extending the importance of DSP-associated mechanisms in driving beat-to-beat regulation of working cardiomyocytes. CONCLUSION We provide evidence of a mechanism that implicates an essential role for desmosomes in cardiac pacemaker function, which has broad implications in better understanding mechanisms underlying beat-to-beat regulation as well as sinus node disease and dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valeria Mezzano
- Department of Medicine, University of California-San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0613C, USA
| | - Yan Liang
- Department of Medicine, University of California-San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0613C, USA
| | - Adam T Wright
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Robert C Lyon
- Department of Medicine, University of California-San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0613C, USA
| | - Emily Pfeiffer
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Michael Y Song
- Scripps Translational Science Institute, Department of Medicine, Scripps Green Hospital, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Yusu Gu
- Department of Medicine, University of California-San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0613C, USA
| | - Nancy D Dalton
- Department of Medicine, University of California-San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0613C, USA
| | - Melvin Scheinman
- Department of Cardiac Electrophysiology, University of California-San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Kirk L Peterson
- Department of Medicine, University of California-San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0613C, USA
| | - Sylvia M Evans
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Steven Fowler
- Cardiovascular Genetics Program, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Marina Cerrone
- Cardiovascular Genetics Program, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Andrew D McCulloch
- Department of Medicine, University of California-San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0613C, USA Department of Bioengineering, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Farah Sheikh
- Department of Medicine, University of California-San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0613C, USA
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Dun W, Lowe JS, Wright P, Hund TJ, Mohler PJ, Boyden PA. Ankyrin-G participates in INa remodeling in myocytes from the border zones of infarcted canine heart. PLoS One 2013; 8:e78087. [PMID: 24155982 PMCID: PMC3796465 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0078087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2013] [Accepted: 09/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Cardiac Na channel remodeling provides a critical substrate for generation of reentrant arrhythmias in border zones of the infarcted canine heart. Recent studies show that Nav1.5 assembly and function are linked to ankyrin-G, gap, and mechanical junction proteins. In this study our objective is to expound the status of the cardiac Na channel, its interacting protein ankyrinG and the mechanical and gap junction proteins at two different times post infarction when arrhythmias are known to occur; that is, 48 hr and 5 day post coronary occlusion. Previous studies have shown the origins of arrhythmic events come from the subendocardial Purkinje and epicardial border zone. Our Purkinje cell (Pcell) voltage clamp study shows that INa and its kinetic parameters do not differ between Pcells from the subendocardium of the 48hr infarcted heart (IZPCs) and control non-infarcted Pcells (NZPCs). Immunostaining studies revealed that disturbances of Nav1.5 protein location with ankyrin-G are modest in 48 hr IZPCs. Therefore, Na current remodeling does not contribute to the abnormal conduction in the subendocardial border zone 48 hr post myocardial infarction as previously defined. In addition, immunohistochemical data show that Cx40/Cx43 co-localize at the intercalated disc (IDs) of control NZPCs but separate in IZPCs. At the same time, Purkinje cell desmoplakin and desmoglein2 immunostaining become diffuse while plakophilin2 and plakoglobin increase in abundance at IDs. In the epicardial border zone 5 days post myocardial infarction, immunoblot and immunocytochemical analyses showed that ankyrin-G protein expression is increased and re-localized to submembrane cell regions at a time when Nav1.5 function is decreased. Thus, Nav1.5 and ankyrin-G remodeling occur later after myocardial infarction compared to that of gap and mechanical junctional proteins. Gap and mechanical junctional proteins remodel in IZPCs early, perhaps to help maintain Nav1.5 subcellular location position and preserve its function soon after myocardial infarction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Dun
- Department of Pharmacology, Center for Molecular Therapeutics, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - John S. Lowe
- The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, The Dorothy M. Davis Heart & Lung Research Institute, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Patrick Wright
- The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, The Dorothy M. Davis Heart & Lung Research Institute, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Thomas J. Hund
- The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, The Dorothy M. Davis Heart & Lung Research Institute, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, United States of America
- Department of Biomedical Engineering,the Ohio State University College of Engineering, Columbus, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Peter J. Mohler
- The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, The Dorothy M. Davis Heart & Lung Research Institute, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, United States of America
- Department of Internal Medicine, the Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, United States of America
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Ohio State University College of Engineering, Columbus, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Penelope A. Boyden
- Department of Pharmacology, Center for Molecular Therapeutics, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
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Shin SR, Jung SM, Zalabany M, Kim K, Zorlutuna P, Kim SB, Nikkhah M, Khabiry M, Azize M, Kong J, Wan KT, Palacios T, Dokmeci MR, Bae H, Tang XS, Khademhosseini A. Carbon-nanotube-embedded hydrogel sheets for engineering cardiac constructs and bioactuators. ACS NANO 2013; 7:2369-80. [PMID: 23363247 PMCID: PMC3609875 DOI: 10.1021/nn305559j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 585] [Impact Index Per Article: 53.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
We engineered functional cardiac patches by seeding neonatal rat cardiomyocytes onto carbon nanotube (CNT)-incorporated photo-cross-linkable gelatin methacrylate (GelMA) hydrogels. The resulting cardiac constructs showed excellent mechanical integrity and advanced electrophysiological functions. Specifically, myocardial tissues cultured on 50 μm thick CNT-GelMA showed 3 times higher spontaneous synchronous beating rates and 85% lower excitation threshold, compared to those cultured on pristine GelMA hydrogels. Our results indicate that the electrically conductive and nanofibrous networks formed by CNTs within a porous gelatin framework are the key characteristics of CNT-GelMA leading to improved cardiac cell adhesion, organization, and cell-cell coupling. Centimeter-scale patches were released from glass substrates to form 3D biohybrid actuators, which showed controllable linear cyclic contraction/extension, pumping, and swimming actuations. In addition, we demonstrate for the first time that cardiac tissues cultured on CNT-GelMA resist damage by a model cardiac inhibitor as well as a cytotoxic compound. Therefore, incorporation of CNTs into gelatin, and potentially other biomaterials, could be useful in creating multifunctional cardiac scaffolds for both therapeutic purposes and in vitro studies. These hybrid materials could also be used for neuron and other muscle cells to create tissue constructs with improved organization, electroactivity, and mechanical integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Su Ryon Shin
- Center for Biomedical Engineering, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 65 Landsdowne Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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Rickelt S, Pieperhoff S. Mutations with pathogenic potential in proteins located in or at the composite junctions of the intercalated disk connecting mammalian cardiomyocytes: a reference thesaurus for arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathies and for Naxos and Carvajal diseases. Cell Tissue Res 2012; 348:325-33. [PMID: 22450909 PMCID: PMC3349860 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-012-1365-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2012] [Accepted: 02/03/2012] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
In the past decade, an avalanche of findings and reports has correlated arrhythmogenic ventricular cardiomyopathies (ARVC) and Naxos and Carvajal diseases with certain mutations in protein constituents of the special junctions connecting the polar regions (intercalated disks) of mature mammalian cardiomyocytes. These molecules, apparently together with some specific cytoskeletal proteins, are components of (or interact with) composite junctions. Composite junctions contain the amalgamated fusion products of the molecules that, in other cell types and tissues, occur in distinct separate junctions, i.e. desmosomes and adherens junctions. As the pertinent literature is still in an expanding phase and is obviously becoming important for various groups of researchers in basic cell and molecular biology, developmental biology, histology, physiology, cardiology, pathology and genetics, the relevant references so far recognized have been collected and are presented here in the following order: desmocollin-2 (Dsc2, DSC2), desmoglein-2 (Dsg2, DSG2), desmoplakin (DP, DSP), plakoglobin (PG, JUP), plakophilin-2 (Pkp2, PKP2) and some non-desmosomal proteins such as transmembrane protein 43 (TMEM43), ryanodine receptor 2 (RYR2), desmin, lamins A and C, striatin, titin and transforming growth factor-β3 (TGFβ3), followed by a collection of animal models and of reviews, commentaries, collections and comparative studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steffen Rickelt
- Helmholtz Group for Cell Biology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 581, Building TP4, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
- Progen Biotechnik, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Sebastian Pieperhoff
- BHF Centre for Cardiovascular Science, The Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, 47 Little France Crescent, EH164TJ Edinburgh, Scotland UK
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