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Roriz M, Brito J, Teixeira FJ, Spyrou K, Teixeira VH. Menthol mouth rinsing and performance in elite football referees in the heat: A study protocol for a randomized crossover trial. Contemp Clin Trials Commun 2023; 35:101202. [PMID: 37691850 PMCID: PMC10492210 DOI: 10.1016/j.conctc.2023.101202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2023] [Revised: 08/09/2023] [Accepted: 08/20/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Within professional European competitions, matches can be played in extreme environmental temperatures, ranging from -5 °C to +30 °C in different countries. Furthermore, the World Cups are usually played in the summer months, when temperatures can exceed 35 °C, increasing physiological stress. Practical and cost-effective cooling strategies may be implemented to help players and referees to cope with exercising in the heat. No study has evaluated the effect of non-thermal internal cooling techniques regarding performance responses on elite football referees, so far. This study aims to analyse the effects of a menthol mouth rinse regarding physical, physiological, and perceptual performance in elite male football referees, during a 90-min football protocol in the heat. Methods At least thirteen male football referees will be recruited to perform two intermittent football protocols, separated by no less than 7 days. After passing the eligibility criteria, the participants will be randomly assigned to 1 of 2 beverages: (1) intervention - menthol solution 0.01% and (2) placebo - noncaloric berry-flavored solution, both at room temperature. The beverages will be given before warm-up (pre-cooling) and at the half-time (per-cooling). The trials will follow a randomized counterbalanced crossover design, single blinded, and will take place in indoor facilities, with Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) > 30 °C, at the same time of the day to control for circadian variations. Impact of the project The results of this study are expected to determine whether mouth rinsing a menthol solution before and during a football exercise protocol performed in the heat will alter perceptual measures and help ease physiological strain and attenuate performance decrements in elite male football referees, comparing to a non-cooling strategy. Thus, we can be closer to defining nutritional strategies of internal cooling that may be an advantage for the performance of the football referees in the heat. Trial registration www.ClinicalTrials.gov NCT05632692 registered on 20 November 2022.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Roriz
- Faculty of Nutrition and Food Sciences, University of Porto (FCNAUP), 4150-180, Porto, Portugal
| | - João Brito
- Portugal Football School, Portuguese Football Federation, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Filipe J. Teixeira
- Interdisciplinary Center for the Study of Human Performance (CIPER), Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada da Costa, 1499-688, Cruz-Quebrada, Portugal
- Atlântica, Instituto Universitário, Fábrica da Pólvora de Barcarena, 2730-036, Barcarena, Portugal
| | - Konstantinos Spyrou
- UCAM Research Center for High Performance Sport, UCAM Universidad Católica de Murcia, Murcia, Spain
- Facultad de Deporte, UCAM Universidad Católica de Murcia, Murcia, Spain
| | - Vitor Hugo Teixeira
- Faculty of Nutrition and Food Sciences, University of Porto (FCNAUP), 4150-180, Porto, Portugal
- Research Centre in Physical Activity, Health and Leisure (CIAFEL), Faculty of Sports, University of Porto (FADEUP), 4200-450, Porto, Portugal
- Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), 4050-600, Porto, Portugal
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Donnan K, Williams EL, Stanger N. The Effects of Heat Exposure During Intermittent Exercise on Physical and Cognitive Performance Among Team Sport Athletes. Percept Mot Skills 2020; 128:439-466. [PMID: 33076764 PMCID: PMC7859587 DOI: 10.1177/0031512520966522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the effects of heat exposure on physical and
cognitive performance during an intermittent exercise protocol so as
to reflect the incremental fatigue experienced during team sports.
Twelve well-trained male team sport players completed an 80-minute
cycling intermittent sprint protocol (CISP), alongside computerized
vigilance and congruent (i.e., simple) and incongruent (i.e., complex)
Stroop tasks of cognitive functioning, in two counterbalanced
temperature conditions; hot (32°C[50%rh]) and control (18°C[50%rh]).
Incongruent Stroop accuracy declined over time
(p = .002), specifically in the second
(Mdiff = –3.75,
SD = 0.90%, p = .009) and
third (Mdiff = –4.58,
SD = 1.22%, p = .019) quarters
compared to the first quarter of the CISP; but there were no
differences between temperature conditions. Congruent Stroop reaction
time (RT) was quicker in the second quarter of exercise in the hot
condition (M = 561.99,
SD = 112.93 ms) compared to the control condition
(M=617.80, SD = 139.71 ms;
p = .022), but no differences were found for
congruent Stroop accuracy nor vigilance measures. Additionally, peak
power output was lower during the third quarter of the CISP in the hot
condition (M = 861.31,
SD = 105.20 W) compared to the control condition
(M = 900.68, SD = 114.84 W;
p < .001). Plasma normetanephrine and
metanephrine concentrations increased from pre- to post-CISP
(Mdiff = +616.90,
SD = 306.99, p < .001; and
Mdiff = +151.23,
SD = 130.32, p = .002,
respectively), with a marginal interaction suggesting a higher
normetanephrine increase from pre- to post-CISP in the hot versus the
control condition (p = .070). Our findings suggest
that accuracy for more complex decisions suffered during prolonged
high-intensity intermittent exercise, perhaps due to exercise-induced
catecholamine increases. Athletes may have also reduced physical
effort under increased heat exposure, indicating how cognitive
performance may be sustained in physically demanding environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kate Donnan
- Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Emily L Williams
- Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas Stanger
- Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, United Kingdom
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Developing a Checklist for Cognitive Characteristics of Driving Scenarios in Dual-Task Studies: The Case of Cell Phone Use While Driving. HEALTH SCOPE 2019. [DOI: 10.5812/jhealthscope.86836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Repeated-sprints exercise in daylight fasting: carbohydrate mouth rinsing does not affect sprint and reaction time performance. Biol Sport 2018; 35:237-244. [PMID: 30449941 PMCID: PMC6224849 DOI: 10.5114/biolsport.2018.77824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2017] [Revised: 01/23/2018] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
To determine the effect of carbohydrate mouth rinsing (CHO-MR) on physical and cognitive performance during repeated-sprints (RS) after 3 days of intermittent fasting (abstaining from food and fluid 14 h per day). In a randomized and counter-balanced manner 15 active healthy males in a fasted state performed a RS-protocol [RSP; 2 sets (SET1 and SET2) of 5×5 s maximal sprints, with each sprint interspersed with 25 s rest and 3 min of recovery between SET1 and SET2] on an instrumented non-motorized treadmill with embedded force sensors under three conditions: i) Control (CON; no-MR), ii) Placebo-MR (PLA-MR; 0% maltodextrin) and iii) CHO-MR (10% maltodextrin). Participants rinsed their mouth with either 10 mL of PLA-MR or CHO-MR solution for 5 s before each sprint. Sprint kinetics were measured for each sprint and reaction time (RTI) tasks (simple and complex) were assessed pre-, during- and post-RSP. There was no statistical main effect of CHO-MR on mean power, mean speed, and vertical stiffness during the sprints between the PLA-MR and CON condition. Additionally, no statistical main effect for CHO-MR on accuracy, movement time and reaction time during the RTI tasks was seen. CHO-MR did not affect physical (RSP) or cognitive (RTI) performance in participants who had observed 3 days of intermittent fasting (abstaining from food and fluid 14 h per day).
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Effects of heat stress and dehydration on cognitive function in elite female field hockey players. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil 2018; 10:12. [PMID: 29946473 PMCID: PMC6007074 DOI: 10.1186/s13102-018-0101-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2017] [Accepted: 06/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Background It has previously been suggested that heat exposure and hypohydration have negative effects on cognitive performance, which may impact upon sporting performance. The aim of the present study was to examine the independent effects of heat stress and hypohydration on cognitive performance in elite female field hockey players. Methods Eight unacclimatised elite field hockey players (age: 22 ± 3 y; height: 1.68 ± 0.05 m; body mass: 63.1 ± 6.0 kg) completed a cognitive test battery before and after 50 min of field hockey specific exercise on a treadmill in four experimental trials; two in hot conditions (33.3 ± 0.1 °C), and two in moderate (16.0 ± 3.0 °C), both with and without ad libitum water intake. Results On the visual search test, participants were faster overall in the heat (1941 vs. 2104 ms, p = 0.001). Response times were quicker in the heat on the Sternberg paradigm (463 vs. 473 ms, p = 0.024) and accuracy was improved (by 1.9%, p = 0.004). There was no effect of hydration status on any of the markers of cognitive function. Conclusions Overall, the findings suggest that in elite field hockey players exposure to heat enhances response times and/or accuracy on a battery of cognitive function tests. However, hypohydration does not appear to affect cognitive performance in elite field hockey players.
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Effects of prolonged running in the heat and cool environments on selected physiological parameters and salivary lysozyme responses. J Exerc Sci Fit 2018. [PMID: 29541134 PMCID: PMC5812877 DOI: 10.1016/j.jesf.2017.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Lysozyme is one of the salivary antimicrobial proteins which act as the “first line of defence” at the mucosal surface. The effects of prolonged exercise in the hot and cool environments among recreational athletes on salivary lysozyme responses are very limited in the literature, especially in the Asian countries. Objective To determine the effects of prolonged running in the hot and cool environments on selected physiological parameters and salivary lysozyme responses among recreational athletes. Methods Randomised and cross-over study design. Thirteen male recreational athletes (age: 20.9 ± 1.3 years old) from Universiti Sains Malaysia participated in this study. They performed two separate running trials; 90 min running at 60% of their respective maximum oxygen uptake (V˙O2max) One running trial was performed in the hot (31ºC) while the other was in the cool (18ºC) environment and this sequence was randomised. Each running trial was started with a 5 min warm-up at 50% of participant's respective V˙O2max Recovery period between these two trials was one week. In the both trials, saliva samples, blood samples, heart rate, ratings of perceived exertion, skin and tympanic temperatures, oxygen consumption, nude body weight, room temperature, and relative humidity were collected. Results Participants' skin temperature, tympanic temperature, body weight changes, heart rate, ratings of perceived exertion, and plasma volume changes were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the hot trial compared to the cool trial. Saliva flow rate was not significantly (p = 0.949) different between the hot (0.32 ± 0.08 ml/min) and cool (0.27 ± 0.05 ml/min) trials. However, in each trial, it significantly decreased (p < 0.05) at post-exercise as compared to pre-exercise but it returned to baseline value at 1 h post-exercise. In addition, there were no significant differences between and within hot and cool trials in salivary lysozyme concentration (p = 0.925; 4.79 ± 1.37 and 4.44 ± 1.11 μg/ml respectively) and secretion rate (p = 0.843; 1.67 ± 1.1 and 1.17 ± 1.0 μg/min respectively). Conclusion This study found similar lysozyme responses between both hot and cool trials. Thus, room/ambient temperature did not affect lysozyme responses among recreational athletes. Nevertheless, the selected physiological parameters were significantly affected by room temperature.
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Gaoua N, de Oliveira RF, Hunter S. Perception, Action, and Cognition of Football Referees in Extreme Temperatures: Impact on Decision Performance. Front Psychol 2017; 8:1479. [PMID: 28912742 PMCID: PMC5583592 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2017] [Accepted: 08/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Different professional domains require high levels of physical performance alongside fast and accurate decision-making. Construction workers, police officers, firefighters, elite sports men and women, the military and emergency medical professionals are often exposed to hostile environments with limited options for behavioral coping strategies. In this (mini) review we use football refereeing as an example to discuss the combined effect of intense physical activity and extreme temperatures on decision-making and suggest an explicative model. In professional football competitions can be played in temperatures ranging from -5°C in Norway to 30°C in Spain for example. Despite these conditions, the referee's responsibility is to consistently apply the laws fairly and uniformly, and to ensure the rules are followed without waning or adversely influencing the competitiveness of the play. However, strenuous exercise in extreme environments imposes increased physiological and psychological stress that can affect decision-making. Therefore, the physical exertion required to follow the game and the thermal strain from the extreme temperatures may hinder the ability of referees to make fast and accurate decisions. Here, we review literature on the physical and cognitive requirements of football refereeing and how extreme temperatures may affect referees' decisions. Research suggests that both hot and cold environments have a negative impact on decision-making but data specific to decision-making is still lacking. A theoretical model of decision-making under the constraint of intense physical activity and thermal stress is suggested. Future naturalistic studies are needed to validate this model and provide clear recommendations for mitigating strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia Gaoua
- School of Applied Sciences, London South Bank UniversityLondon, United Kingdom
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Hunt AP, Bach AJE, Borg DN, Costello JT, Stewart IB. The Systematic Bias of Ingestible Core Temperature Sensors Requires a Correction by Linear Regression. Front Physiol 2017; 8:260. [PMID: 28496414 PMCID: PMC5406512 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2017] [Accepted: 04/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
An accurate measure of core body temperature is critical for monitoring individuals, groups and teams undertaking physical activity in situations of high heat stress or prolonged cold exposure. This study examined the range in systematic bias of ingestible temperature sensors compared to a certified and traceable reference thermometer. A total of 119 ingestible temperature sensors were immersed in a circulated water bath at five water temperatures (TEMP A: 35.12 ± 0.60°C, TEMP B: 37.33 ± 0.56°C, TEMP C: 39.48 ± 0.73°C, TEMP D: 41.58 ± 0.97°C, and TEMP E: 43.47 ± 1.07°C) along with a certified traceable reference thermometer. Thirteen sensors (10.9%) demonstrated a systematic bias > ±0.1°C, of which 4 (3.3%) were > ± 0.5°C. Limits of agreement (95%) indicated that systematic bias would likely fall in the range of −0.14 to 0.26°C, highlighting that it is possible for temperatures measured between sensors to differ by more than 0.4°C. The proportion of sensors with systematic bias > ±0.1°C (10.9%) confirms that ingestible temperature sensors require correction to ensure their accuracy. An individualized linear correction achieved a mean systematic bias of 0.00°C, and limits of agreement (95%) to 0.00–0.00°C, with 100% of sensors achieving ±0.1°C accuracy. Alternatively, a generalized linear function (Corrected Temperature (°C) = 1.00375 × Sensor Temperature (°C) − 0.205549), produced as the average slope and intercept of a sub-set of 51 sensors and excluding sensors with accuracy outside ±0.5°C, reduced the systematic bias to < ±0.1°C in 98.4% of the remaining sensors (n = 64). In conclusion, these data show that using an uncalibrated ingestible temperature sensor may provide inaccurate data that still appears to be statistically, physiologically, and clinically meaningful. Correction of sensor temperature to a reference thermometer by linear function eliminates this systematic bias (individualized functions) or ensures systematic bias is within ±0.1°C in 98% of the sensors (generalized function).
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew P Hunt
- Faculty of Health, School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of TechnologyBrisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Aaron J E Bach
- Faculty of Health, School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of TechnologyBrisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - David N Borg
- Faculty of Health, School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of TechnologyBrisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Joseph T Costello
- Extreme Environments Laboratory, Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of PortsmouthPortsmouth, UK
| | - Ian B Stewart
- Faculty of Health, School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of TechnologyBrisbane, QLD, Australia
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COULL NICOLE, CHRISMAS BRYNA, WATSON PHILLIP, HORSFALL RACHEL, TAYLOR LEE. Tyrosine Ingestion and Its Effects on Cognitive and Physical Performance in the Heat. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2016; 48:277-86. [DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000000757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Aldous JWF, Chrismas BCR, Akubat I, Dascombe B, Abt G, Taylor L. Hot and Hypoxic Environments Inhibit Simulated Soccer Performance and Exacerbate Performance Decrements When Combined. Front Physiol 2016; 6:421. [PMID: 26793122 PMCID: PMC4709924 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2015.00421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2015] [Accepted: 12/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The effects of heat and/or hypoxia have been well-documented in match-play data. However, large match-to-match variation for key physical performance measures makes environmental inferences difficult to ascertain from soccer match-play. Therefore, the present study aims to investigate the hot (HOT), hypoxic (HYP), and hot-hypoxic (HH) mediated-decrements during a non-motorized treadmill based soccer-specific simulation. Twelve male University soccer players completed three familiarization sessions and four randomized crossover experimental trials of the intermittent Soccer Performance Test (iSPT) in normoxic-temperate (CON: 18°C 50% rH), HOT (30°C; 50% rH), HYP (1000 m; 18°C 50% rH), and HH (1000 m; 30°C; 50% rH). Physical performance and its performance decrements, body temperatures (rectal, skin, and estimated muscle temperature), heart rate (HR), arterial blood oxygen saturation (SaO2), perceived exertion, thermal sensation (TS), body mass changes, blood lactate, and plasma volume were all measured. Performance decrements were similar in HOT and HYP [Total Distance (−4%), High-speed distance (~−8%), and variable run distance (~−12%) covered] and exacerbated in HH [total distance (−9%), high-speed distance (−15%), and variable run distance (−15%)] compared to CON. Peak sprint speed, was 4% greater in HOT compared with CON and HYP and 7% greater in HH. Sprint distance covered was unchanged (p > 0.05) in HOT and HYP and only decreased in HH (−8%) compared with CON. Body mass (−2%), temperatures (+2–5%), and TS (+18%) were altered in HOT. Furthermore, SaO2 (−8%) and HR (+3%) were changed in HYP. Similar changes in body mass and temperatures, HR, TS, and SaO2 were evident in HH to HOT and HYP, however, blood lactate (p < 0.001) and plasma volume (p < 0.001) were only significantly altered in HH. Perceived exertion was elevated (p < 0.05) by 7% in all conditions compared with CON. Regression analysis identified that absolute TS and absolute rise in skin and estimated muscle temperature (r = 0.82, r = 0.84 r = 0.82, respectively; p < 0.05) predicted the hot-mediated-decrements in HOT. The hot, hypoxic, and hot-hypoxic environments impaired physical performance during iSPT. Future interventions should address the increases in TS and body temperatures, to attenuate these decrements on soccer performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey W F Aldous
- Department of Sport Science and Physical Activity, Institute of Sport and Physical Activity Research, University of Bedfordshire Bedford, UK
| | - Bryna C R Chrismas
- Sport Science Program, College of Arts and Sciences, Qatar University Doha, Qatar
| | - Ibrahim Akubat
- Department of Physical Education and Sports Studies, Newman University Birmingham, UK
| | - Ben Dascombe
- Department of Rehabilitation, Nutrition and Sport, School of Allied Health, La Trobe University Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Grant Abt
- Department of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, The University of Hull Hull, UK
| | - Lee Taylor
- ASPETAR, Qatar Orthopedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, Athlete Health and Performance Research Centre, Aspire ZoneDoha, Qatar; Department of Sport Science and Physical Activity, Institute of Sport and Physical Activity Research, University of BedfordshireBedford, UK
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Taylor L, Watkins SL, Marshall H, Dascombe BJ, Foster J. The Impact of Different Environmental Conditions on Cognitive Function: A Focused Review. Front Physiol 2016; 6:372. [PMID: 26779029 PMCID: PMC4701920 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2015.00372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2015] [Accepted: 11/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Cognitive function defines performance in objective tasks that require conscious mental effort. Extreme environments, namely heat, hypoxia, and cold can all alter human cognitive function due to a variety of psychological and/or biological processes. The aims of this Focused Review were to discuss; (1) the current state of knowledge on the effects of heat, hypoxic and cold stress on cognitive function, (2) the potential mechanisms underpinning these alterations, and (3) plausible interventions that may maintain cognitive function upon exposure to each of these environmental stressors. The available evidence suggests that the effects of heat, hypoxia, and cold stress on cognitive function are both task and severity dependent. Complex tasks are particularly vulnerable to extreme heat stress, whereas both simple and complex task performance appear to be vulnerable at even at moderate altitudes. Cold stress also appears to negatively impact both simple and complex task performance, however, the research in this area is sparse in comparison to heat and hypoxia. In summary, this focused review provides updated knowledge regarding the effects of extreme environmental stressors on cognitive function and their biological underpinnings. Tyrosine supplementation may help individuals maintain cognitive function in very hot, hypoxic, and/or cold conditions. However, more research is needed to clarify these and other postulated interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee Taylor
- ASPETAR, Qatar Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, Athlete Health and Performance Research CentreDoha, Qatar
- Applied Sport and Exercise Physiology Research Group, Department of Sport Science and Physical Activity, Institute for Sport and Physical Activity Research, University of BedfordshireBedford, UK
| | - Samuel L. Watkins
- Applied Sport and Exercise Physiology Research Group, Department of Sport Science and Physical Activity, Institute for Sport and Physical Activity Research, University of BedfordshireBedford, UK
| | - Hannah Marshall
- Applied Sport and Exercise Physiology Research Group, Department of Sport Science and Physical Activity, Institute for Sport and Physical Activity Research, University of BedfordshireBedford, UK
| | - Ben J. Dascombe
- Applied Sport Science and Exercise Testing Laboratory, Faculty of Science and Information Technology, University of NewcastleOurimbah, NSW, Australia
| | - Josh Foster
- Applied Sport and Exercise Physiology Research Group, Department of Sport Science and Physical Activity, Institute for Sport and Physical Activity Research, University of BedfordshireBedford, UK
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