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Wang CH, Baumgartner N, Nagy C, Fu HL, Yang CT, Kao SC. Protective effect of aerobic fitness on the detrimental influence of exhaustive exercise on information processing capacity. PSYCHOLOGY OF SPORT AND EXERCISE 2023; 64:102301. [PMID: 37665801 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2022.102301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Revised: 09/04/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2022] [Indexed: 09/06/2023]
Abstract
Although aerobic fitness has been thought to protect against the detrimental cognitive effects following exhaustive exercise, available evidence from studies using traditional mean behavioral measures remain somewhat equivocal. PURPOSE This study aimed to reconcile this discrepancy by using a novel theory-driven diagnostic tool, the Systems Factorial Technology (SFT). METHODS Sixty-six healthy young adults aged from 18 to 30 years old with different levels of aerobic fitness (n = 33 for the higher-fit and lower-fit groups) completed a go/nogo version of redundant-target task before and after a graded exercise test (GXT) until exhaustion. SFT was used to calculate the resilience capacity, which reflects the information processing capacity underlying inhibitory control. RESULTS Following the GXT, both higher-fit and lower-fit groups showed faster responses while leaving accuracy unchanged as compared to the performance at the pretest. On the other hand, the resilience capacity decreased for the lower-fit group but was maintained for the higher-fit group. CONCLUSION The present findings suggest that aerobic fitness may modulate the individual difference in decisional mechanism following exhaustive exercise. In sum, this study offers an alternative mechanistic explanation regarding cognitive individual differences in response to exhaustive exercise and provides novel insights into the significance of maintaining a state of high physical fitness for those who need to perform cognitively challenging tasks under physically stressful conditions (e.g., elite athletes).
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Hao Wang
- Institute of Physical Education, Health & Leisure Studies, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan; Department of Psychology, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan
| | | | - Christian Nagy
- Department of Health and Kinesiology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, USA
| | - Hao-Lun Fu
- Department of Psychology, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Ta Yang
- Department of Psychology, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Mind, Brain and Consciousness, Taipei Medical University, Taiwan.
| | - Shih-Chun Kao
- Department of Health and Kinesiology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, USA.
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2
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Sudo M, Costello JT, McMorris T, Ando S. The effects of acute high-intensity aerobic exercise on cognitive performance: A structured narrative review. Front Behav Neurosci 2022; 16:957677. [PMID: 36212191 PMCID: PMC9538359 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2022.957677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
It is well established that acute moderate-intensity exercise improves cognitive performance. However, the effects of acute high-intensity aerobic exercise on cognitive performance have not been well characterized. In this review, we summarize the literature investigating the exercise-cognition interaction, especially focusing on high-intensity aerobic exercise. We discuss methodological and physiological factors that potentially mediate cognitive performance in response to high-intensity exercise. We propose that the effects of high-intensity exercise on cognitive performance are primarily affected by the timing of cognitive task (during vs. after exercise, and the time delay after exercise). In particular, cognitive performance is more likely to be impaired during high-intensity exercise when both cognitive and physiological demands are high and completed simultaneously (i.e., the dual-task paradigm). The effects may also be affected by the type of cognitive task, physical fitness, exercise mode/duration, and age. Second, we suggest that interactions between changes in regional cerebral blood flow (CBF), cerebral oxygenation, cerebral metabolism, neuromodulation by neurotransmitters/neurotrophic factors, and a variety of psychological factors are promising candidates that determine cognitive performance in response to acute high-intensity exercise. The present review has implications for recreational, sporting, and occupational activities where high cognitive and physiological demands are required to be completed concurrently.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mizuki Sudo
- Physical Fitness Research Institute, Meiji Yasuda Life Foundation of Health and Welfare, Tokyo, Japan
- *Correspondence: Mizuki Sudo,
| | - Joseph T. Costello
- Extreme Environments Laboratory, School of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, United Kingdom
| | - Terry McMorris
- Extreme Environments Laboratory, School of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, United Kingdom
- Institute of Sport, University of Chichester, Chichester, United Kingdom
| | - Soichi Ando
- Graduate School of Informatics and Engineering, The University of Electro-Communications, Chofu, Japan
- Soichi Ando,
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3
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Büchel D, Sandbakk Ø, Baumeister J. Exploring intensity-dependent modulations in EEG resting-state network efficiency induced by exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 2021; 121:2423-2435. [PMID: 34003363 PMCID: PMC8357751 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-021-04712-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Exhaustive cardiovascular load can affect neural processing and is associated with decreases in sensorimotor performance. The purpose of this study was to explore intensity-dependent modulations in brain network efficiency in response to treadmill running assessed from resting-state electroencephalography (EEG) measures. METHODS Sixteen trained participants were tested for individual peak oxygen uptake (VO2 peak) and performed an incremental treadmill exercise at 50% (10 min), 70% (10 min) and 90% speed VO2 peak (all-out) followed by cool-down running and active recovery. Before the experiment and after each stage, borg scale (BS), blood lactate concentration (BLa), resting heartrate (HRrest) and 64-channel EEG resting state were assessed. To analyze network efficiency, graph theory was applied to derive small world index (SWI) from EEG data in theta, alpha-1 and alpha-2 frequency bands. RESULTS Analysis of variance for repeated measures revealed significant main effects for intensity on BS, BLa, HRrest and SWI. While BS, BLa and HRrest indicated maxima after all-out, SWI showed a reduction in the theta network after all-out. CONCLUSION Our explorative approach suggests intensity-dependent modulations of resting-state brain networks, since exhaustive exercise temporarily reduces brain network efficiency. Resting-state network assessment may prospectively play a role in training monitoring by displaying the readiness and efficiency of the central nervous system in different training situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Büchel
- Exercise Science and Neuroscience Unit, Department of Exercise & Health, Faculty of Science, Paderborn University, Paderborn, Germany.
| | - Øyvind Sandbakk
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Jochen Baumeister
- Exercise Science and Neuroscience Unit, Department of Exercise & Health, Faculty of Science, Paderborn University, Paderborn, Germany
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Casas M, Fadó R, Domínguez JL, Roig A, Kaku M, Chohnan S, Solé M, Unzeta M, Miñano-Molina AJ, Rodríguez-Álvarez J, Dickson EJ, Casals N. Sensing of nutrients by CPT1C controls SAC1 activity to regulate AMPA receptor trafficking. J Cell Biol 2021; 219:152088. [PMID: 32931550 PMCID: PMC7659714 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.201912045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Revised: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 06/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1C (CPT1C) is a sensor of malonyl-CoA and is located in the ER of neurons. AMPA receptors (AMPARs) mediate fast excitatory neurotransmission in the brain and play a key role in synaptic plasticity. In the present study, we demonstrate across different metabolic stress conditions that modulate malonyl-CoA levels in cortical neurons that CPT1C regulates the trafficking of the major AMPAR subunit, GluA1, through the phosphatidyl-inositol-4-phosphate (PI(4)P) phosphatase SAC1. In normal conditions, CPT1C down-regulates SAC1 catalytic activity, allowing efficient GluA1 trafficking to the plasma membrane. However, under low malonyl-CoA levels, such as during glucose depletion, CPT1C-dependent inhibition of SAC1 is released, facilitating SAC1’s translocation to ER-TGN contact sites to decrease TGN PI(4)P pools and trigger GluA1 retention at the TGN. Results reveal that GluA1 trafficking is regulated by CPT1C sensing of malonyl-CoA and provide the first report of a SAC1 inhibitor. Moreover, they shed light on how nutrients can affect synaptic function and cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Casas
- Basic Sciences Department, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, Sant Cugat del Vallès, Spain
| | - Rut Fadó
- Basic Sciences Department, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, Sant Cugat del Vallès, Spain
| | - José Luis Domínguez
- Basic Sciences Department, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, Sant Cugat del Vallès, Spain
| | - Aina Roig
- Basic Sciences Department, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, Sant Cugat del Vallès, Spain
| | - Moena Kaku
- Department of Food and Life Science, Ibaraki University College of Agriculture, Ami, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Shigeru Chohnan
- Department of Food and Life Science, Ibaraki University College of Agriculture, Ami, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Montse Solé
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Department, Institute of Neurosciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mercedes Unzeta
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Department, Institute of Neurosciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Alfredo Jesús Miñano-Molina
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Department, Institute of Neurosciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, Madrid, Spain
| | - José Rodríguez-Álvarez
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Department, Institute of Neurosciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, Madrid, Spain.,Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New York, NY
| | - Eamonn James Dickson
- Department of Physiology and Membrane Biology, University of California, School of Medicine, Davis, CA
| | - Núria Casals
- Basic Sciences Department, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, Sant Cugat del Vallès, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y la Nutrición, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
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Chen FT, Etnier JL, Chan KH, Chiu PK, Hung TM, Chang YK. Effects of Exercise Training Interventions on Executive Function in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sports Med 2021; 50:1451-1467. [PMID: 32447717 PMCID: PMC7376513 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-020-01292-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Background Chronic exercise training has been shown be to positively associated with executive function (EF) in older adults. However, whether the exercise training effect on EF is affected by moderators including the specific sub-domain of EF, exercise prescription variables, and sample characteristics remains unknown. Objectives This systematic and meta-analytic review of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) investigated the effects of exercise training on EF in older adults and explored potential moderators underlying the effects of exercise training on EF. Methods In accordance with the PRISMA guidelines, the electronic databases MEDLINE (PubMed) and EMBASE (Scopus) were searched from January 2003 to November 2019. All studies identified for inclusion were peer-reviewed and published in English. To be included, studies had to report findings from older (> 55 years old), cognitively normal adults or adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) randomized to an exercise training or a control group. The risk of bias in each study was appraised using the Cochrane risk-of-bias tool. Fixed-effects models were used to compare the effects of exercise training and control conditions on EF assessed at baseline and post-intervention. In addition, subgroup analyses were performed for three moderators (i.e., the specific sub-domain of EF, exercise prescription variables, and sample characteristics). Results Thirty-three RCTs were included. Overall, exercise training was associated with a significant small improvement in EF [Q(106) = 260.09, Hedges’ g = 0.21; p < 0.01]. The EF sub-domain moderator was not significant [Q(2) = 4.33, p > 0.05], showing that the EF improvement in response to exercise is evident for measures of inhibition, updating, and shifting. Regarding exercise prescription variables, results were significantly moderated by frequency of exercise training [Q(1) = 10.86, p < 0.05], revealing that effect sizes (ESs) were larger for moderate frequency (g = 0.31) as compared to low frequency exercise (g = 0.15). The results also showed type of exercise training moderated the ESs [Q(4) = 26.18, p < 0.05], revealing that ESs were largest for other forms of exercise (g = 0.44), followed by Tai Chi and yoga (g = 0.38), resistance exercise (g = 0.22), aerobic exercise (g = 0.14), and combined exercise (g = 0.10). In addition, The results showed moderated length of training the ESs [Q(2) = 16.64, p < 0.05], revealing that ESs were largest for short length (g = 0.32), followed by mid length (g = 0.26) and long length (g = 0.09). No significant difference in effects was observed as a function of exercise intensity [Q(1) = 2.87 p > 0.05] and session time [Q(2) = 0.21, p > 0.05]. Regarding sample characteristics, the results were significantly moderated by age [Q(2) = 20.64, p < 0.05], with significant benefits for young-old (55–65 years old) (g = 0.30) and mid-old (66–75 years old) (g = 0.25), but no effect on EF for old-old (more than 75 years old). The results were also significantly moderated by physical fitness levels [Q(1) = 10.80, p < 0.05], revealing that ESs were larger for sedentary participants (g = 0.33) as compared to physically fit participants (g = 0.16). In addition, results were also significantly moderated by cognitive status [Q(1) = 11.44, p < 0.05], revealing that ESs were larger for participants with cognitively normal (g = 0.26) as compared to those with mild cognitive impairment (g = 0.08). No significant differences in effects were observed as a function of sex [Q(2) = 5.38, p > 0.05]. Conclusions Exercise training showed a small beneficial effect on EF in older adults and the magnitude of the effect was different across some moderators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng-Tzu Chen
- Graduate Institute of Sport, Leisure and Hospitality Management, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Jennifer L Etnier
- Department of Kinesiology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, USA
| | - Kuei-Hui Chan
- Graduate Institute of Athletics and Coaching Science, National Taiwan Sport University, Taoyuan, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Ping-Kun Chiu
- Graduate Institute of Athletics and Coaching Science, National Taiwan Sport University, Taoyuan, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Tsung-Ming Hung
- Department of Physical Education, National Taiwan Normal University, 162, Section 1, Heping E. Rd., Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.,Institute for Research Excellence in Learning Science, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Yu-Kai Chang
- Department of Physical Education, National Taiwan Normal University, 162, Section 1, Heping E. Rd., Taipei, Taiwan, ROC. .,Institute for Research Excellence in Learning Science, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.
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6
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Fadó R, Rodríguez-Rodríguez R, Casals N. The return of malonyl-CoA to the brain: Cognition and other stories. Prog Lipid Res 2020; 81:101071. [PMID: 33186641 DOI: 10.1016/j.plipres.2020.101071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Revised: 11/06/2020] [Accepted: 11/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Nutrients, hormones and the energy sensor AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) tightly regulate the intracellular levels of the metabolic intermediary malonyl-CoA, which is a precursor of fatty acid synthesis and a negative regulator of fatty acid oxidation. In the brain, the involvement of malonyl-CoA in the control of food intake and energy homeostasis has been known for decades. However, recent data uncover a new role in cognition and brain development. The sensing of malonyl-CoA by carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 (CPT1) proteins regulates a variety of functions, such as the fate of neuronal stem cell precursors, the motility of lysosomes in developing axons, the trafficking of glutamate receptors to the neuron surface (necessary for proper synaptic function) and the metabolic coupling between astrocytes and neurons. We discuss the relevance of those recent findings evidencing how nutrients and metabolic disorders impact cognition. We also enumerate all nutritional and hormonal conditions that are known to regulate malonyl-CoA levels in the brain, reflect on protein malonylation as a new post-translational modification, and give a reasoned vision of the opportunities and challenges that future research in the field could address.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rut Fadó
- Basic Sciences Department, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, E-08195 Sant Cugat del Vallès, Spain; Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Bellaterra, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain.
| | - Rosalía Rodríguez-Rodríguez
- Basic Sciences Department, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, E-08195 Sant Cugat del Vallès, Spain.
| | - Núria Casals
- Basic Sciences Department, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, E-08195 Sant Cugat del Vallès, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y la Nutrición (CIBEROBN), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, E-28029 Madrid, Spain.
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7
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Chacko SC, Quinzi F, De Fano A, Bianco V, Mussini E, Berchicci M, Perri RL, Di Russo F. A single bout of vigorous-intensity aerobic exercise affects reactive, but not proactive cognitive brain functions. Int J Psychophysiol 2020; 147:233-243. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2019.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2019] [Revised: 11/22/2019] [Accepted: 12/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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8
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Hill M, Walsh S, Talbot C, Price M, Duncan M. Exercise intensity-dependent effects of arm and leg-cycling on cognitive performance. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0224092. [PMID: 31634371 PMCID: PMC6802839 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0224092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 10/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Physiological responses to arm and leg-cycling are different, which may influence psychological and biological mechanisms that influence post-exercise cognitive performance. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of maximal and submaximal (absolute and relative intensity matched) arm and leg-cycling on executive function. Thirteen males (age, 24.7 ± 5.0 years) initially undertook two incremental exercise tests to volitional exhaustion for arm-cycling (82 ± 18 W) and leg-cycling (243 ± 52 W) for the determination of maximal power output. Participants subsequently performed three 20-min constant load exercise trials: (1) arm-cycling at 50% of the ergometer-specific maximal power output (41 ± 9 W), (2) leg-cycling at 50% of the ergometer-specific maximal power output (122 ± 26 W), and (3) leg-cycling at the same absolute power output as the submaximal arm-cycling trial (41 ± 9 W). An executive function task was completed before, immediately after and 15-min after each exercise test. Exhaustive leg-cycling increased reaction time (p < 0.05, d = 1.17), while reaction time reduced following exhaustive arm-cycling (p < 0.05, d = -0.62). Improvements in reaction time were found after acute relative intensity arm (p < 0.05, d = -0.76) and leg-cycling (p < 0.05, d = -0.73), but not following leg-cycling at the same absolute intensity as arm-cycling (p > 0.05). Improvements in reaction time following arm-cycling were maintained for at least 15-min post exercise (p = 0.008, d = -0.73). Arm and leg-cycling performed at the same relative intensity elicit comparable improvements in cognitive performance. These findings suggest that individuals restricted to arm exercise possess a similar capacity to elicit an exercise-induced cognitive performance benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathew Hill
- Centre for Sport, Exercise and Life Sciences, Coventry University, Coventry, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Steven Walsh
- Physical Activity & Life Sciences, University of Northampton, Northampton, United Kingdom
| | - Christopher Talbot
- Physical Activity & Life Sciences, University of Northampton, Northampton, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Price
- Centre for Sport, Exercise and Life Sciences, Coventry University, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Duncan
- Centre for Sport, Exercise and Life Sciences, Coventry University, Coventry, United Kingdom
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9
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Moreau D, Chou E. The Acute Effect of High-Intensity Exercise on Executive Function: A Meta-Analysis. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2019; 14:734-764. [DOI: 10.1177/1745691619850568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
High-intensity exercise has recently emerged as a potent alternative to aerobic regimens, with ramifications for health and brain function. As part of this trend, single sessions of intense exercise have been proposed as powerful, noninvasive means for transiently enhancing cognition. However, findings in this field remain mixed, and a thorough synthesis of the evidence is lacking. Here, we synthesized the literature in a meta-analysis of the acute effect of high-intensity exercise on executive function. We included a total of 1,177 participants and 147 effect sizes across 28 studies and found a small facilitating effect ( d = 0.24) of high-intensity exercise on executive function. However, this effect was significant only compared with rest ( d = 0.34); it was not significant when high-intensity exercise was compared with low-to-moderate intensity exercise ( d = 0.07). This suggests that intense and moderate exercise affect executive function in a comparable manner. We tested a number of moderators that together explained a significant proportion of the between-studies variance. Overall, our findings indicate that high-intensity cardiovascular exercise might be a viable alternative for eliciting acute cognitive gains. We discuss the potential of this line of research, identify a number of challenges and limitations it faces, and propose applications to individuals, society, and policies.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Moreau
- School of Psychology, The University of Auckland
- Centre for Brain Research, The University of Auckland
| | - Edward Chou
- School of Psychology, The University of Auckland
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Vera J, Luque-Casado A, Redondo B, Cárdenas D, Jiménez R, García-Ramos A. Ocular Accommodative Response is Modulated as a Function of Physical Exercise Intensity. Curr Eye Res 2018; 44:442-450. [DOI: 10.1080/02713683.2018.1557210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jesús Vera
- Department of Optics, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Antonio Luque-Casado
- Mind, Brain, and Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), University of Granada, Granada, Spain
- Center for Sport Studies, King Juan Carlos University, Madrid, Spain
| | - Beatríz Redondo
- Department of Optics, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - David Cárdenas
- Department of Physical Education and Sport, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Raimundo Jiménez
- Department of Optics, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Amador García-Ramos
- Department of Physical Education and Sport, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
- Department of Sports Sciences and Physical Conditioning, Faculty of Education, CIEDE, Catholic University of Most Holy Concepción, Concepción, Chile
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