Prevention of Bleomycin-Induced Pulmonary Inflammation and Fibrosis in Mice by Paeonol

Protective effects of paeonol against cognitive impairment in lung diseases

Pulmonary inflammation may lead to neuroinflammation resulting in neurological dysfunction, and it is associated with a variety of acute and chronic lung diseases. Paeonol is a herbal phenolic compound with anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative properties. The aim of this study is to understand the beneficial effects of paeonol on cognitive impairment, pulmonary inflammation and its underlying mechanisms. Pulmonary inflammation-associated cognitive deficit was observed in TNFα-stimulated mice, and paeonol mitigated the cognitive impairment by reducing the expressions of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) in hippocampus. Moreover, elevated plasma miR-34c-5p in lung-inflamed mice was also reduced by paeonol. Pulmonary inflammation induced by intratracheal instillation of TNFα in mice resulted in immune cells infiltration in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, pulmonary edema, and acute fibrosis, and these inflammatory responses were alleviated by paeonol orally. In MH-S alveolar macrophages, tumor necrosis factor (TNF) α- and phorbol myristate acetate (PMA)-induced inflammasome activation was ameliorated by paeonol. In addition, the expressions of antioxidants were elevated by paeonol, and reactive oxygen species production was reduced. In this study, paeonol demonstrates protective effects against cognitive deficits and pulmonary inflammation by exerting anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative properties, suggesting a powerful benefit as a potential therapeutic agent.

Vistusertib improves pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis by modulating inflammatory/oxidative stress mediators via suppressing the mTOR signalling

INTRODUCTION

Inflammation and oxidative stress are key factors in the development of pulmonary fibrosis (PF) by promoting the differentiation of fibroblasts through modulating various pathways including Wnt/β-catenin, TGF-β and mTOR signalling.

OBJECTIVE AND METHODS

This study aimed to evaluate the effects and elucidate the mechanisms of vistusertib (VSB) in treating pulmonary inflammation/fibrosis, specifically by targeting the mTOR pathway using various in vitro and in vivo models.

RESULTS

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation model in macrophages (RAW 264.7), epithelial (BEAS-2B) and endothelial (HMVEC-L) cells revealed that treatment with VSB significantly reduced the IL-6, TNF-α, CCL2, and CCL7 expression. TGF-β induced differentiation was also significantly reduced upon VSB treatment in fibrotic cells (LL29 and DHLF). Further, bleomycin-induced inflammation and fibrosis models demonstrated that treatment with VSB significantly ameliorated the severe inflammation, and lung architectural distortion, by reducing the inflammatory markers expression/levels, inflammatory cells and oxidative stress indicators. Further, fibrosis model results exhibited that, VSB treatment significantly reduced the α-SMA, collagen and TGF-β expressions, improved the lung architecture and restored lung functions.

CONCLUSION

Overall, this study uncovers the anti-inflammatory/anti-fibrotic effects of VSB by modulating the mTOR activation. Although VSB was tested for lung fibrosis, it can be tested for other fibrotic disorders to improve the patient's survival and quality of life.

Chinese medicine as a therapeutic option for pulmonary fibrosis: Clinical efficacies and underlying mechanisms

ETHNIC PHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is a fibrotic interstitial lung disease caused by continuous damage and excessive repair of alveolar epithelial cells, the pathogenesis of which is not fully understood. At present, the incidence of PF has increased significantly around the world. The therapeutic arsenals against PF are relatively limited, with often poor efficacy and many adverse effects. As a conventional and effective therapeutic strategy, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been widely applied in treating lung fibrosis for thousands of years in China. Due to the multi-ingredient, multi-target characteristics, Chinese medicines possess promising clinical benefits for PF treatment.

AIM OF THIS REVIEW

This review aims to systematically analyze the clinical efficacy of Chinese medicine on PF, and further summarize the relevant mechanisms of Chinese medicine treating PF in preclinical studies, in order to provide a comprehensive insight into the beneficial effects of Chinese medicines on PF.

METHODS

Eight major Chinese and English databases were searched from database inception up to October 2022, and all randomized clinical trials (RCTs) investigating the effects of Chinese medicine intervention on effectiveness and safety in the treatment of PF patients were included. Subsequently, preclinical studies related to the treatment of PF in Chinese medicine, including Chinese medicine compounds, Chinese herbal materials and extracts, and Chinese herbal formulas (CHFs) were searched through PubMed and Web of science to summarize the related mechanisms of Chinese medicine against PF.

RESULTS

A total of 56 studies with 4019 patients were included by searching the relevant databases. Total clinical efficacy, pulmonary function, blood gas analysis, lung high resolution CT (HRCT), 6 min walk test (6-MWT), St George's Respiratory Questionnaire (SGRQ) scores, clinical symptom scores, TCM syndrome scores and other outcome indicators related to PF were analyzed. Besides, numerous preclinical studies have shown that many Chinese medicine compounds, Chinese herbal materials and extracts, and CHFs play a preventive and therapeutic role in PF by reducing oxidative stress, ameliorating inflammation, inhibiting epithelial-mesenchymal transition and myofibroblasts activation, and regulating autophagy and apoptosis.

CONCLUSION

Chinese medicines show potential as supplements or substitutes for treating PF. And studies on Chinese medicines will provide a new approach to better management of PF.

Notoginsenoside R1 protects against hypobaric hypoxia-induced high-altitude pulmonary edema by inhibiting apoptosis via ERK1/2-P90rsk-BAD ignaling pathway

High-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) is a potentially fatal disease. Notoginsenoside R1 is a novel phytoestrogen with anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and anti-apoptosis properties. However, its effects and underlying mechanisms in the protection of hypobaric hypoxia-induced HAPE rats remains unclear. This study aimed to explore the protective effects and underlying mechanisms of Notoginsenoside R1 in hypobaric hypoxia-induced HAPE. We found that Notoginsenoside R1 alleviated the lung tissue injury, decreased lung wet/dry ratio, and reduced inflammation and oxidative stress. Additionally, Notoginsenoside R1 ameliorated the changes in arterial blood gas, decreased the total protein concentration in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, and inhibited the occurrence of apoptosis caused by HAPE. In the process of further exploration of the mechanism, it was found that Notoginsenoside R1 could promote the activation of ERK1/2-P90rsk-BAD signaling pathway, and the effect of Notoginsenoside R1 was attenuated after the use of ERK1/2 inhibitor U0126. Our study indicated that the protective effects of Notoginsenoside R1 against HAPE were mainly related to the inhibition of inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis. Notoginsenoside R1 may be a potential candidate for preventing HAPE.

Paeonol repurposing for cancer therapy: From mechanism to clinical translation

Paeonol (PAE) is a natural phenolic monomer isolated from the root bark of Paeonia suffruticosa that has been widely used in the clinical treatment of some inflammatory-related diseases and cardiovascular diseases. Much preclinical evidence has demonstrated that PAE not only exhibits a broad spectrum of anticancer effects by inhibiting cell proliferation, invasion and migration and inducing cell apoptosis and cycle arrest through multiple molecular pathways, but also shows excellent performance in improving cancer drug sensitivity, reversing chemoresistance and reducing the toxic side effects of anticancer drugs. However, studies indicate that PAE has the characteristics of poor stability, low bioavailability and short half-life, which makes the effective dose of PAE in many cancers usually high and greatly limits its clinical translation. Fortunately, nanomaterials and derivatives are being developed to ameliorate PAE's shortcomings. This review aims to systematically cover the anticancer advances of PAE in pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, nano delivery systems and derivatives, to provide researchers with the latest and comprehensive information, and to point out the limitations of current studies and areas that need to be strengthened in future studies. We believe this work will be beneficial for further exploration and repurposing of this natural compound as a new clinical anticancer drug.

Insights on the mechanism of bleomycin to induce lung injury and associated in vivo models: A review

Acute lung injury leads to the development of chronic conditions such as idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma as well as alveolar sarcoma. Various investigations are being performed worldwide to understand the pathophysiology of these diseases, develop novel bioactive compounds and inhibitors to target the ailment. Generally, in vivo models are used to understand the disease outcome and therapeutic suppressing effects for which the animals are chemically or physically induced to mimic the onset of definite disease conditions. Amongst the chemical inducing agents, Bleomycin (BLM) is the most successful inducer. It is reported to target various receptors and activate inflammatory pathways, cellular apoptosis, epithelial mesenchymal transition leading to the release of inflammatory cytokines, and proteases. Mice is one of the most widely used animal model for BLM induced pulmonary associated studies apart from rat, rabbit, sheep, pig, and monkey. Although, there is considerable variation amongst in vivo studies for BLM induction which suggests a detailed study on the same to understand the mechanism of action of BLM at molecular level. Hence, herein we have reviewed various chemical inducers, mechanism of action of BLM in inducing lung injury in vivo, its advantages and disadvantages. Further, we have also discussed the rationale behind various in vivo models and recent development in BLM induction for various animals.

Traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and pharmacokinetics of the root bark of Paeonia x suffruticosa andrews: A comprehensive review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Moutan Cortex (MC), commonly known as "Mu dan pi", refers to the dried root bark of Paeonia x suffruticosa Andrews and is broadly used as a traditional herbal medication in China, Japan, and Korea. For thousands of years, it has been utilized to treat female genital, extravasated blood, cardiovascular, and stagnant blood disorders.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The purpose of this review article was to summarize information on the traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology and pharmacokinetics of MC, as well as to outline the further research directions for the development of new drugs and the associations between traditional uses and pharmacological effects.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The information involved in the study was gathered from a variety of electronic resources, including PubMed, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, SciFinder, China Knowledge Resource Integrated Database, and Google Scholar. The date was from 1992 to 2022.

RESULTS

Approximately 163 chemical compounds have been extracted and identified from MC, including monoterpenes, monoterpene glycosides, triterpenes, phenolics, flavonoids, volatile oils, alkaloids, and others. In these categories, the monoterpene glycosides and phenols being the most common. A wide variety of pharmacological effects have been described for MC crude extracts and active molecules, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antiviral, antitumor, antidiabetic, organ protection, and neuroprotective activities, as well as treating cardiovascular diseases. Pharmacokinetics has been also used in the study of MC, including its crude extracts or chemical constituents, in order to explore the therapeutic mechanism, direct clinically appropriate application and provide new ideas for the exploitation of innovative medicines.

CONCLUSION

Modern pharmacological research has demonstrated that MC, as a significant therapeutic resource, has the ability to heal a wide range of diseases, particularly female genital and cardiovascular problems. These researches propose therapeutic ideas for the development of novel MC medicines. Furthermore, preclinical and clinical study have verified several observed pharmacological properties related with the traditional usages of MC.

Monomeric compounds from traditional Chinese medicine: New hopes for drug discovery in pulmonary fibrosis

Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is a chronic and irreversible pulmonary disease, and can lead to decreased lung function, respiratory failure and even death. The pathogenesis research and treatment strategy of PF significantly lag behind the medical progress and clinical needs. The treatment of this disease remains a thorny clinical problem, and the effective therapeutic drugs are still limited. Monomeric compounds from traditional Chinese medicine own various biological activities and high safety. They play a broad part in treating diseases and is also a candidate drug for preventing and treating PF. In this paper, we reviewed the mechanism of action and potential value of various anti-PF monomeric compounds from traditional Chinese medicine. These monomeric compounds can attenuate inflammatory response, oxidative stress, epithelial mesenchymal transformation and other processes of lung through many signaling pathways, and inhibit the activation and differentiation of fibroblasts, thus contributing to the treatment of PF. This review can provide new ideas for the development of anti-PF drugs in high efficiency with low toxicity.

Pulmonary delivery of a recombinant RAGE antagonist peptide derived from high-mobility group box-1 in a bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis animal model

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is an interstitial lung disease characterized by irreversible fibrosis and destruction of the alveolar structure. Receptor for advanced glycation end-products (RAGE) has been identified as one of the key molecules involved in IPF pathogenesis. A RAGE antagonist peptide (RAP) was developed based on the RAGE-binding domain of high mobility group box-1 (HMGB-1). Anti-IPF effects of RAP were evaluated in a bleomycin-induced mouse model of IPF. Bleomycin was administered intratracheally, and then RAP was administrated twice by intratracheal instillation, 1 and 3 days after bleomycin challenge. Seven days after the bleomycin challenge, the mice were sacrificed and the lungs were harvested. The results showed that pulmonary hydroxyproline was reduced in mice administered RAP compared with the control group. Tumor growth factor-β (TGF-β), α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), and collagen were also reduced by RAP administration in a dose-dependent manner. Longer-term effects of RAP were investigated in mice challenged with bleomycin. RAP was administered intratracheally every 7 days for 28 days, after which lung samples were harvested and analyzed. The results showed that hydroxyproline, TGF-β, α-SMA, and collagen were reduced by repeated RAP administration. Taken together, the results suggest that RAP is useful for treatment of IPF.

The effect of nanoparticles on pulmonary fibrosis: a systematic review and Meta-analysis of preclinical studies

Air pollution is a big ecumenical problem associated with public health around the world. The rapid development of nanotechnology worldwide resulted in a significant increase in human exposure with unknown particles, and ultimately leading to an increase in acute and chronic diseases. The effect of nanoparticles on pulmonary fibrosis has been reported in vivo and in vitro studies; however, the results are inconsistent. The present systematic review and meta-analysis of animal preclinical studies was conducted to assess the effect of nanoparticles on pulmonary fibrosis. A systematic search of online databases and gray literature as well as reference lists of retrieved studies was performed up to February 2019 to identify preclinical animal studies. Studies were assessed for methodological quality using the SYstematic Review Center for Laboratory animal Experimentation bias risk tool (SYRCLE's ROB tool). Pooled standardized mean difference (SMD) estimate with corresponding 95% CI was calculated using inverse-variance weights method while random effects meta-analysis was used, taking into account conceptual heterogeneity. To assess the robustness of pooled estimates as well as heterogeneity across studies, sensitivity analysis and Cochran Q statistic (with I² statistic) was carried out using Stata 11.0. Of 6494 retrieved studies, 85 were reviewed in depth for eligibility. 16 studies met the criteria for inclusion in this systematic review. The meta-analysis was conducted on 10 studies which had reported the mean of TGF-β in 7 days after exposure by nanoparticles jointly (exposure compared to no exposure). Findings showed that exposure to nanoparticles significantly induced pulmonary fibrosis (SMD: 4.12, 95% CI: 2.57-5.67). A statistical heterogeneity was found [P < 0.001 (Q statistics), I² = 83.0%] across studies. Nanoparticles were the most influencing in inducing pulmonary fibrosis in animal models. Sensitivity analysis demonstrated consistency of the results, indicating that the meta-analysis model was robust. Publication bias (using visual inspection and statistical tests) was unlikely in the association between nanoparticles and pulmonary fibrosis. We found that the nanoparticles significantly induce pulmonary fibrosis through increasing proinflammatory cytokine TGF-β and histopathological changes.

Natural Product-Based Potential Therapeutic Interventions of Pulmonary Fibrosis

Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is a disease-refractive lung condition with an increased rate of mortality. The potential factors causing PF include viral infections, radiation exposure, and toxic airborne chemicals. Idiopathic PF (IPF) is related to pneumonia affecting the elderly and is characterized by recurring scar formation in the lungs. An impaired wound healing process, defined by the dysregulated aggregation of extracellular matrix components, triggers fibrotic scar formation in the lungs. The potential pathogenesis includes oxidative stress, altered cell signaling, inflammation, etc. Nintedanib and pirfenidone have been approved with a conditional endorsement for the management of IPF. In addition, natural product-based treatment strategies have shown promising results in treating PF. In this study, we reviewed the recently published literature and discussed the potential uses of natural products, classified into three types—isolated active compounds, crude extracts of plants, and traditional medicine, consisting of mixtures of different plant products—in treating PF. These natural products are promising in the treatment of PF via inhibiting inflammation, oxidative stress, and endothelial mesenchymal transition, as well as affecting TGF-β-mediated cell signaling, etc. Based on the current review, we have revealed the signaling mechanisms of PF pathogenesis and the potential opportunities offered by natural product-based medicine in treating PF.

Aerobic Exercise Improves Pulmonary Fibrosis by Improving Insulin Resistance and Inflammation in Obese Mice

Background

Previous studies have demonstrated that obesity is associated with pulmonary fibrosis. We attempted to identify whether regular aerobic exercise (AE) can protect against high-fat diet (HFD)-associated pulmonary fibrosis.

Methods

Forty-eight C57BL/6 mice were randomly assigned to four groups: chow group (Ch), chow plus exercise group (CE), obesity group (Ob), and obesity plus exercise group (OE). The mice were fed either an HFD or a chow diet for 16 weeks, and low-intensity aerobic exercise (AE) was performed in the last 8 weeks. We measured the degree of pulmonary fibrosis; pulmonary inflammation; oxidative stress parameters; insulin resistance-related indicators; the number of inflammatory cells in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF); the mRNA expression levels of IL-10, IL-1β, TGF-β, TNF-α, CXCL-1, IL-17, MMP-9, MPO, NE, and sirt-1; and the BALF levels of CXCL-1, IL-17, TGF-β, IL-10, IL-1β, and TNF-α in lung tissue.

Results

AE in obese mice protected against obesity-associated pulmonary fibrosis, chronic inflammation, pro-oxidative/antioxidative imbalance, and insulin resistance. AE ameliorated the HFD-induced inflammatory response and neutrophil infiltration in the lung. AE downregulated BALF levels of CXCL-1, IL-1β, TNF-α IL-17, and TGF-β but upregulated BALF levels of IL-10. AE decreased IL-1β, TGF-β, TNF-α, CXCL-1, IL-17, MMP-9, MPO, and NE mRNA expression levels but upregulated IL-10 and sirt-1 mRNA expression levels in the lung.

Conclusions

AE protects against HFD-induced pulmonary fibrosis by improving obesity-associated insulin resistance, chronic low-grade inflammation, and pro-oxidative/antioxidative imbalance. AE improved HFD-induced pulmonary fibrosis by suppressing IL-17, TGF-β, NE, and MMP-9 expression and activating IL-10 and sirt-1 expression.

Paeonol Attenuated Vascular Fibrosis Through Regulating Treg/Th17 Balance in a Gut Microbiota-Dependent Manner

Background: Paeonol (Pae) is a natural phenolic compound isolated from Cortex Moutan, which exhibits anti-atherosclerosis (AS) effects. Our previous work demonstrated that gut microbiota plays an important role during AS treatment as it affects the efficacy of Pae. However, the mechanism of Pae in protecting against vascular fibrosis as related to gut microbiota has yet to be elucidated. Objective: To investigate the antifibrosis effect of Pae on AS mice and demonstrate the underlying gut microbiota-dependent mechanism. Methods: ApoE^-/- mice were fed with high-fat diet (HFD) to replicate the AS model. H&E and Masson staining were used to observe the plaque formation and collagen deposition. Short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production was analyzed through LC-MS/MS. The frequency of immune cells in spleen was phenotyped by flow cytometry. The mRNA expression of aortic inflammatory cytokines was detected by qRT-PCR. The protein expression of LOX and fibrosis-related indicators were examined by western blot. Results: Pae restricted the development of AS and collagen deposition. Notably, the antifibrosis effect of Pae was achieved by regulating the gut microbiota. LC-MS/MS data indicated that the level of SCFAs was increased in caecum contents. Additionally, Pae administration selectively upregulated the frequency of regulatory T (Treg) cells as well as downregulated the ratio of T helper type 17 (Th17) cells in the spleen of AS mice, improving the Treg/Th17 balance. In addition, as expected, Pae intervention can significantly downregulate the levels of proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-17 in the aorta, and upregulate the levels of anti-inflammatory factor IL-10, a marker of Treg cells. Finally, Pae's intervention in the gut microbiota resulted in the restoration of the balance of Treg/Th17, which indirectly downregulated the protein expression level of LOX and fibrosis-related indicators (MMP-2/9 and collagen I/III). Conclusion: Pae attenuated vascular fibrosis in a gut microbiota-dependent manner. The underlying protective mechanism was associated with the improved Treg/Th17 balance in spleen mediated through the increased microbiota-derived SCFA production. Collectively, our results demonstrated the role of Pae as a potential gut microbiota modulator to prevent and treat AS.

The Anti-Inflammatory Effect of a Combination of Five Compounds From Five Chinese Herbal Medicines Used in the Treatment of COPD

Effective compound combination (ECC; i.e, 20-S-ginsenoside Rh1, astragaloside, icariin, nobiletin, and paeonol), derived from Chinese herbal medicine, significantly ameliorates chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) in rats; however, the underlying mechanisms of ECC remain largely unclear. In this study, network pharmacology analysis integrated with experimental validation was used to explore the therapeutic mechanisms of ECC against COPD. ECC targets and COPD genes and targets were identified from multiple databases, and then used for an analysis of protein–protein interaction (PPI) networks, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways, and biological functioning. BisoGenet was used to comprehensively analyze the hub-network. We validated the therapeutic effect and mechanisms of ECC both in vivo and in vitro. We identified 45 ECC targets, which were mainly related to inflammatory processes, such as the NOD-like and NF-kappa B signaling pathways, hematopoietic cell lineage, Th17 cell differentiation, cellular response to lipopolysaccharide, and interleukin-8 secretion. In addition, 1180 COPD genes and 70 COPD targets were identified as being involved in the biological functions associated with COPD development, such as cytokine–cytokine receptor interaction, the TNF signaling pathway, the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway, regulation of lymphocyte proliferation, and positive regulation of leukocyte migration. Integrative analysis of COPD genes and targets and ECC target networks revealed that 54 genes were mainly involved in the inflammatory process, such as IL-17 signaling, NF-kappa B signaling, innate immune response–activating signal transduction, and macrophage cell differentiation. Six targets (AR, ESR1, HNRNPA1, PAPR1, TP53, and VCAM1) contained in the hub-network and their four related compounds were obtained and recognized as the key molecules associated with the effects of ECC. Molecular docking validation demonstrated that four compounds could bind to six targets that interact with COPD genes. Finally, in vivo and in vitro experiments verified that ECC treatment ameliorated the symptoms of COPD in rats by improving their lung function, reducing pathological changes, and suppressing oxidative responses and pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion, while inhibiting inflammation in LPS-induced macrophages, which may be associated with NF-kappa B and MAPK signaling regulation. This study demonstrates the therapeutic mechanisms and effects of ECC on COPD via regulation of the underlying inflammatory process.

Paeonol inhibits profibrotic signaling and HOTAIR expression in fibrotic buccal mucosal fibroblasts

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE

Betel nut chewing is the major risk factor of oral submucous fibrosis (OSF). Various studies have sought to discover alternative strategies to alleviate oral fibrogenesis. In the present study, we aimed to evaluate the anti-fibrosis effect of paeonol, a phenolic component derived from Paeonia Suffruticosa.

METHODS

The cytotoxicity of paeonol was tested using normal and fibrotic buccal mucosal fibroblasts (fBMFs) derived from OSF tissues. Collagen gel contraction, Transwell migration, invasion, and wound healing capacities were examined. Besides, the activation of TGF-β/Smad2 signaling and expression levels of type I collagen, α-SMA, and long non-coding RNA HOTAIR were measured as well.

RESULTS

Paeonol exerted a higher cytotoxic effect on fBMFs compared to normal BMFs. The arecoline-induced myofibroblast activities, including collagen gel contractility, cell motility, and wound healing ability were all suppressed by paeonol treatment. In addition, the activation of the TGF-β/Smad2 pathway was inhibited along with a lower expression of α-SMA and type I collagen in paeonol-treated cells. Also, the administration of paeonol decreased the mRNA expression of HOTAIR in fBMFs.

CONCLUSION

Our results indicate that paeonol may be a promising compound to attenuate the progression of oral fibrogenesis in OSF patients.

Anti-Fibrosis Effects of Magnesium Lithospermate B in Experimental Pulmonary Fibrosis: By Inhibiting TGF-βRI/Smad Signaling

Pulmonary fibrosis is a severe and irreversible interstitial pulmonary disease with high mortality and few treatments. Magnesium lithospermate B (MLB) is a hydrosoluble component of Salvia miltiorrhiza and has been reported to have antifibrotic effects in other forms of tissue fibrosis. In this research, we studied the effects of MLB on pulmonary fibrosis and the underlying mechanisms. Our results indicated that MLB treatment (50 mg/kg) for seven days could attenuate bleomycin (BLM)-induced pulmonary fibrosis by reducing the alveolar structure disruption and collagen deposition in the C57 mouse model. MLB was also found to inhibit transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β)-stimulated myofibroblastic transdifferentiation of human lung fibroblast cell line (MRC-5) cells and collagen production by human type II alveolar epithelial cell line (A549) cells, mainly by decreasing the expression of TGF-β receptor I (TGF-βRI) and regulating the TGF-β/Smad pathway. Further studies confirmed that the molecular mechanisms of MLB in BLM-induced pulmonary fibrosis mice were similar to those observed in vitro. In summary, our results demonstrated that MLB could alleviate experimental pulmonary fibrosis both in vivo and in vitro, suggesting that MLB has great potential for pulmonary fibrosis treatment.

Protective and anti-inflammatory effect of selenium nano-particles against bleomycin-induced pulmonary injury in male rats

Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is an interstitial lung disease, in which the exact pathologic mechanisms are not fully understood. Drug trials for the treatment of PF have shown disappointing results and controversial. Recently, selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) have received great attention for potential use in treatments, due to high bioactivity features and lower toxicity. This study evaluated the protective effect of SeNPs against pulmonary injury induced by bleomycin (single dose, 4 mg/kg, intratracheal) in male rats in early and late phases of the disease. The rats were treated with SeNPs by intraperitoneal injection (0.5 mg SeNP/kg) for five consecutive days in the early phase (a day after injection of bleomycin) and late phase (a week after injection of bleomycin). The results showed that injection of SeNPs in the early phase improved the degree of alveolitis and inflammation and lung structure damage. Also, led to significant decreases in density of transforming growth factor- β1 (TGF-β1) in the lung and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) levels in the serum and lung homogenates compared with bleomycin-administrated group. Notably, treatment with the SeNP during the late phase did not show any ameliorative effects. Thus, the data suggest that SeNP has a protective effect against bleomycin-induced pulmonary injury in rats in the early phase of the disease. This might mean that SeNPs may be a new therapeutic agent for the improvement of this disease in the early phases.

Total Glucosides of Peony Protect Cardiomyocytes against Oxidative Stress and Inflammation by Reversing Mitochondrial Dynamics and Bioenergetics

Total glucosides of peony (TGP) are used to treat rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus. We explored the protective effects of TGP on cardiomyocyte oxidative stress and inflammation in the presence of hydrogen peroxide by focusing on mitochondrial dynamics and bioenergetics. Our study demonstrated that hydrogen peroxide significantly repressed cardiomyocyte viability and promoted cell apoptosis through induction of the mitochondrial death pathway. TGP treatment sustained cardiomyocyte viability, reduced cardiomyocyte apoptosis, and decreased inflammation and oxidative stress. Molecular investigation indicated that hydrogen peroxide caused mitochondrial dynamics disruption and bioenergetics reduction in cardiomyocytes, but this alteration could be normalized by TGP. We found that disruption of mitochondrial dynamics abolished the regulatory effects of TGP on mitochondrial bioenergetics; TGP modulated mitochondrial dynamics through the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathway; and inhibition of AMPK alleviated the protective effects of TGP on mitochondria. Our results showed that TGP treatment reduces cardiomyocyte oxidative stress and inflammation in the presence of hydrogen peroxide by correcting mitochondrial dynamics and enhancing mitochondrial bioenergetics. Additionally, the regulatory effects of TGP on mitochondrial function seem to be mediated through the AMPK pathway. These findings are promising for myocardial injury in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus.

Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue Lymphoma Translocation 1 Inhibitor as a Novel Therapeutic Tool for Lung Injury

Pulmonary fibrosis is a progressive disease characterized by lung remodeling due to excessive deposition of extracellular matrix. In this study, the bleomycin experimental model of pulmonary fibrosis was employed to investigate the anti-fibrotic and immunomodulatory activity of the inhibition of MALT1 protease activity. Mice received a single intra-tracheal administration of bleomycin (1 mg/kg) in the presence or absence of MI-2, a selective MALT1 inhibitor, (a dose of 30 mg/kg administered intra-peritoneally 1 h after bleomycin and daily until the end of the experiment). Seven days after bleomycin instillation mice were sacrificed and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid analysis, measurement of collagen content in the lung, histology, molecular analysis and immunohistochemistry were performed. To evaluate mortality and body weight gain a subset of mice was administered daily with MI-2 for 21 days. Mice that received MI-2 showed decreased weight loss and mortality, inflammatory cells infiltration, cytokines overexpression and tissue injury. Moreover, biochemical and immunohistochemical analysis displayed that MI-2 was able to modulate the excessive production of reactive oxygen species and the inflammatory mediator upregulation induced by bleomycin instillation. Additionally, MI-2 demonstrated anti-fibrotic activity by reducing transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and receptor associated factor 6 (TRAF6) expression. The underlying mechanisms for the protective effect of MI-2 bleomycin induced pulmonary fibrosis may be attributed to its inhibition on NF-κB pathway. This is the first report showing the therapeutic role of MALT1 inhibition in a bleomycin model of pulmonary fibrosis, thus supporting further preclinical and clinical studies.

Cynanchum paniculatum and Its Major Active Constituents for Inflammatory-Related Diseases: A Review of Traditional Use, Multiple Pathway Modulations, and Clinical Applications

Cynanchum paniculatum Radix, known as Xuchangqing in Chinese, is commonly prescribed in Chinese Medicine (CM) for the treatment of various inflammatory diseases. The anti-inflammatory property of Cynanchum paniculatum can be traced from its wind-damp removing, collaterals' obstruction relieving, and toxins counteracting effects as folk medicine in CM. This paper systematically reviewed the research advancement of the pharmacological effects of Cynanchum paniculatum among a variety of human diseases, including diseases of the respiratory, circulatory, digestive, urogenital, hematopoietic, endocrine and metabolomic, neurological, skeletal, and rheumatological systems and malignant diseases. This review aims to link the long history of clinical applications of Cynanchum paniculatum in CM with recent biomedical investigations. The major bioactive chemical compositions of Cynanchum paniculatum and their associated action mechanism unveiled by biomedical investigations as well as the present clinical applications and future perspectives are discussed. The major focuses of this review are on the diverse mechanisms of Cynanchum paniculatum and the role of its active components in inflammatory diseases.

Adelmidrol: A New Promising Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Therapeutic Tool in Pulmonary Fibrosis

BACKGROUND

Chronic pulmonary diseases are characterized by airway remodeling due to complex multicellular responses and the production of free oxygen radicals. They lead to a progressive decline of pulmonary functions. Adelmidrol is an analogue of palmitoylethanolamide (PEA), which is a well-known anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant compound. In this study, we investigated the efficacy of adelmidrol (10 mg/Kg) for bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis in mice.

METHODS

Bleomycin intratracheal administration was performed on the first day and for the following twenty-one days, mice were treated with adelmidrol (10 mg/Kg).

RESULTS

The survival rate and body weight gain were recorded daily. At the end of the experiment, adelmidrol-administered animals showed reduced airway infiltration by inflammatory cells, Myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity, and pro-inflammatory cytokine overexpression (IL,6 IL-1β, TNF-α, and TGF-1β). Moreover, adelmidrol treatment was able to manage the significant incapacity of antioxidants and elevation of the oxidant burden, as shown by the MDA, SOD, and GSH levels and decreased nitric oxide production. It was also able to significantly modulate the JAK2/STAT3 and IκBα/NF-kB pathway. Histologic examination of the lung tissues showed reduced sample injury, mast cell degranulation, chymase activity, and collagen deposition.

CONCLUSIONS

In sum, our results propose adelmidrol as a therapeutic approach in the treatment of pulmonary fibrosis.

Analysis of endophytic and rhizosphere bacterial diversity and function in the endangered plant Paeonia ludlowii

Paeonia ludlowii is indigenous to Tibet and has an important ecological and economic value in China. In Tibet, P. ludlowii has been used in folk medicine with relative success. Plant microbial endophytes play an important role in plant growth, health and ecological function. The diversity of endophytic bacteria associated with P. ludlowii remains poorly understood. In this study, the structure of the endophytic bacterial communities associated with different tissues, including fruits, flowers, leaves, stems, and roots, and rhizosphere soils was analyzed with Illumina MiSeq sequencing of bacterial 16S rDNA. A total of 426,240 sequences and 4847 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were obtained. The OTUs abundance of roots was higher than that of other tissues; however, the OTUs abundance was similar among different deep soil samples. In the plant tissues, Cyanobacteria was the most abundant bacterial phylum, followed by Proteobacteria; however, the most abundant phyla were Proteobacteria and Acidobacteria in soil samples from three different layers. In addition, the diversity and richness of the microorganisms in the soil were very similar to those in roots but higher than those in other tissues of P. ludlowii. Predictive metagenome analysis revealed that endophytic bacteria play critical functional roles in P. ludlowii. This conclusion could facilitate the study of the ecological functions of endophytic bacteria and their interactions with P. ludlowii to analyze the reasons why this important medicinal plant is becoming endangered.

Bufei Qingyu Granules Inhibit the Development of Systemic Sclerosis via Notch-1/Jagged-2 Signaling Pathway

Systemic sclerosis (SSc) is a rare chronic autoimmune disorder, mainly characterized by skin sclerosis. In this study, Bufei Qingyu Granules (BQG), a Chinese herbal formula, was used to treat SSc. To better understand the effects and molecular mechanisms of BQG, we successfully established a Bleomycin- (BLM-) induced SSc mouse model, and the mice were treated by BQG. Meanwhile, transcriptomic and bioinformatics analyses were conducted on those samples. As a result, we visually showed that BQG ameliorated the overall health of mice, including body weight, spleen, and thymus index. Thus, it also significantly alleviated inflammation presented by Chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 2 (Cxcl2), vasculopathy characterized by α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), and fibrotic changes elaborated by not only pathological images, but also the hydroxyproline (HYP) content. After testing by transcriptomic analysis, Cxcl2, Synaptosomal-associated protein 25 (Snap25), and Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3, and subunit J2 (Eif3j2) which were differentially expressed genes, were verified, so that the data were credible. We further found that BQG could regulate Notch signaling pathway by significantly decreasing both mRNA and protein expression levels of Notch-1 and Jagged-2. Hence, this study demonstrated that BQG could ameliorate the sclerotic skin in mice model involved in inflammation, vascular changes, and fibrosis effects, which was partly mediated by Notch signaling pathway.

Paeonol protects mitochondrial injury and prevents pulmonary vascular remodeling in hypoxia

Mitochondrial injury of pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) is an important stage in the development of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). Recent studies revealed that Paeonol exerts anti-proliferative effects on vascular smooth muscle cells. However, whether Paeonol is directly involved in mitochondrial injury related to PAH remains unknown. Here, we found that hypoxia-induced mitochondrial injury in vivo was alleviated in the presence of Paeonol. Hypoxia mediated the mitochondrial injuries in PASMCs in vitro, including decreased ATP generation, morphological alterations, mitochondrial polarization and increased reactive oxygen species production, which were suppressed by Paeonol. Our results also indicated that the expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator 1α (PGC-1α) was regulated by Paeonol. Paeonol caused significant alterations in mitochondrion-dependent apoptosis through PGC-1α in PASMCs. Taken together, these results provide the first evidence confirming the protective effect of Paeonol in mediating mitochondrial injury under hypoxia and elucidating the necessary role of PGC-1α in the effects of Paeonol in inducing PASMC apoptosis.

PM2.5 induced pulmonary fibrosis in vivo and in vitro

Epidemiological studies have revealed positive correlation between particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of < 2.5 µm (PM_2.5) and pulmonary fibrosis (PF). As etiology and pathogenesis of PF have not been fully elucidated, this study was to investigate the potential mechanism by which PM_2.5 exposure adversely induced PF in vivo and in vitro. In the present study, 6-week-old C57/BL6J mice were intranasally administrated with PM_2.5 (100 μg/day) for 4 weeks. Micro-CT and hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining analysis showed that lung inflammation and incipient fibrosis symptoms were induced after PM_2.5 exposure. The expression of Transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), α-Smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), and Collagen type I (COL1) in mice lung was increased. Upregulation of TGF-β1 in mice serum was also detected by ELISA after exposure to PM_2.5. Moreover, chronic PM_2.5 exposure on human bronchial epithelial cell line BEAS-2B cells led to activation of TGF-β1/SMAD3 pathway, TGF-β1 excretion and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), while PM_2.5 also triggered the activation of TGF-β1/SMAD3 pathway, TGF-β1 excretion as well as differentiation of human pulmonary fibroblast cell line HFL-1 cells, and TGF-β1 production in mouse macrophage cell line RAW264.7 cells. Furthermore, cell culture medium of PM_2.5-treated BEAS-2B and RAW264.7 cells could both activate TGF-β1/SMAD3 signaling, α-SMA and COL1 upregulation in HFL-1 cells. Therefore, we concluded that PM_2.5 could induce PF by targeting pulmonary epithelium, macrophages and fibroblasts, suggesting that PM_2.5 was a potent initiator of PF.

Paeonol: pharmacological effects and mechanisms of action

Paeonia suffruticosa possesses various medicinal benefits and has been used extensively in traditional oriental medicine for thousands of years. Paeonol is the main component isolated from the root bark of Paeonia suffruticosa. The pharmacological effects of Paeonia suffruticosa are mostly attributed to paeonol. Paeonol injection has been successfully applied in China for nearly 50 years for inflammation/pain-related indications. Currently, the dosage forms of paeonol approved by China Food and Drug Administration include tablet, injection, and external preparations such as ointment and adhesive plaster. So far, the clinical applications of paeonol are mainly focusing on the anti-inflammatory activity. Studies of other pharmacological activities of paeonol are developing rapidly, and which may play an important role in the future. Besides, substantial mechanisms of pharmacological action of paeonol have been clarified in recent years. In this review, we summarize the pharmacological effects anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, anti-tumor, anti-cardiovascular diseases and associated mechanisms of action of paeonol up to date.

Deciphering the Potential Pharmaceutical Mechanism of GUI-ZHI-FU-LING-WAN on Systemic Sclerosis based on Systems Biology Approaches

Systemic sclerosis (SSc; scleroderma) is a complicated idiopathic connective tissue disease with seldom effective treatment. GUI-ZHI-FU-LING-WAN (GFW) is a classic Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) formula widely used for the treatment of SSc. However, the mechanism of how the GFW affects SSc remains unclear. In this study, the system biology approach was utilized to analyze herb compounds and related targets to get the general information of GFW. The KEGG enrichment analysis of 1645 related targets suggested that the formula is involved in the VEGF signaling pathway, the Toll-like receptor signaling pathway, etc. Quantitative and qualitative analysis of the relationship among the 3 subsets (formula targets, drug targets and disease genes) showed that the formula targets overlapped with 38.0% drug targets and 26.0% proteins encoded by disease genes. Through the analysis of SSc related microarray statistics from the GEO database, we also validated the consistent expression behavior among the 3 subsets before and after treatment. To further reveal the mechanism of prescription, we constructed a network among 3 subsets and decomposed it into 24 modules to decipher how GFW interfere in the progress of SSc. The modules indicated that the intervention may come into effect through following pathogenic processes: vasculopathy, immune dysregulation and tissue fibrosis. Vitro experiments confirmed that GFW could suppress the proliferation of fibroblasts and decrease the Th1 cytokine (TNF-α, MIP-2 and IL-6) expression for lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and bleomycin (BLM) stimulation in macrophages, which is consistent with previous conclusion that GFW is able to relieve SSc. The systems biology approach provides a new insight for deepening understanding about TCM.

Oil biosynthesis and transcriptome profiles in developing endosperm and oil characteristic analyses in Paeonia ostii var. lishizhenii

Paeonia ostii var. lishizhenii, a well-known medicinal and horticultural plant, is indigenous to China. Recent studies have shown that its seed has a high oil content, and it was approved as a novel resource of edible oil with a high level of α-linolenic acid by the Chinese Government. This study measured the seed oil contents and fatty acid components of P. ostii var. lishizhenii and six other peonies, P. suffruticosa, P. ludlowii, P. decomposita, P. rockii, and P. lactiflora Pall. 'Heze' and 'Gansu'. The results show that P. ostii var. lishizhenii exhibits the average oil characteristics of tested peonies, with an oil content of 21.3%, α-linolenic acid 43.8%, and unsaturated fatty acids around 92.1%. Hygiene indicators for the seven peony seed oils met the Chinese national food standards. P. ostii var. lishizhenii seeds were used to analyze transcriptome gene regulation networks on endosperm development and oil biosynthesis. In total, 124,117 transcripts were obtained from six endosperm developing stages (S0-S5). The significant changes in differential expression genes (DEGs) clarify three peony endosperm developmental phases: the endosperm cell mitotic phase (S0-S1), the TAG biosynthesis phase (S1-S4), and the mature phase (S5). The DEGs in plant hormone signal transduction, DNA replication, cell division, differentiation, transcription factors, and seed dormancy pathways regulate the endosperm development process. Another 199 functional DEGs participate in glycolysis, pentose phosphate pathway, citrate cycle, FA biosynthesis, TAG assembly, and other pathways. A key transcription factor (WRI1) and some important target genes (ACCase, FATA, LPCAT, FADs, and DGAT etc.) were found in the comprehensive genetic networks of oil biosynthesis.

Histopathological Correlations between Mediastinal Fat-Associated Lymphoid Clusters and the Development of Lung Inflammation and Fibrosis following Bleomycin Administration in Mice

Bleomycin (BLM) has been reported to induce lung inflammation and fibrosis in human and mice and showed genetic susceptibility. Interestingly, the C57BL/6 (B6) mice had prominent mediastinal fat-associated lymphoid cluster (MFALCs) under healthy condition, and showed susceptibility to development of lung fibrosis following BLM administration. However, the pathogenesis of lung lesion progression, and their correlation with MFALC morphologies, remain to be clarified. To investigate the correlations between MFALC structures and lung injuries in B6 mice, histopathological examination of mediastinal fat tissues and lungs was examined at 7 and 21 days (d) following a single 50 μL intranasal (i.n.) instillation of either BLM sulfate (5 mg/kg) (BLM group) or phosphate-buffered saline (control group). The lung fibrosis was examined by Masson’s trichrome (MT) stain of paraffin sections and mRNA expression levels of Col1a1, Col3a1, and Acta2 in different frozen lung samples. Furthermore, immunohistochemistry for CD3, B220, Iba1, Gr1, BrdU, LYVE-1, and peripheral node addressin (PNAd) was performed to detect T- and B-cells, macrophages, granulocytes, proliferating cells, lymph vessels (LVs), and high endothelial venules (HEVs). We found that MFALCs were more abundant in the BLM group as compared to the control group. The lung of BLM group developed pneumonitis with severe cellular infiltrations at 7 days and significant collagen deposition (MT) and higher expression of Col1a1, and Col3a1 at 21 days post-administration. Numerous immune cells, proliferating cells, HEVs, and LVs were observed in both MFALCs and lungs of the BLM group. Interestingly, PNAd + HEVs were observed in the lungs of the BLM group, but not the control group. Moreover, numerous Gr1 + polymorphonuclear and mononuclear-like ring cells were found in the MFALCs and lungs of the BLM group. Interestingly, flow cytometric analysis revealed a significant increase of B-cell populations within the MFALCs of BLM group suggesting a potential proliferative induction of B-cells following inflammation. Furthermore, significant positive correlations were observed between quantitative parameters of these immune cells in both the lungs and MFALCs. Thus, we suggest a potentially important role for MFALCs and HEVs in the progression of lung disease, especially in inflammatory lung disease.

F2-isoprostanes can mediate bleomycin-induced lung fibrosis

F₂-isoprostanes (F₂-IsoPs) have been considered markers of oxidative stress in various pulmonary diseases, but little is known about their possible role in pulmonary fibrosis. In this study, we have investigated the potential key role of F₂-IsoPs as markers and mediators of bleomycin (BLM)-induced pulmonary fibrosis in rats. During the in vivo study, plasma F₂-IsoPs showed a peak at 7 days and remained elevated for the entire experimental period. Lung F₂-IsoP content nearly tripled 7 days following the intratracheal instillation of BLM, and by 28 days, the value increased about fivefold compared to the controls. Collagen deposition correlated with F₂-IsoP content in the lung. Furthermore, from day 21 onwards, lung sections from BLM-treated animals showed α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) positive cells, which were mostly evident at 28 days. In vitro studies performed in rat lung fibroblasts (RLF) demonstrated that either BLM or F₂-IsoPs stimulated both cell proliferation and collagen synthesis. Moreover, RLF treated with F₂-IsoPs showed a significant increase of α-SMA expression compared to control, indicating that F₂-IsoPs can readily activate fibroblasts to myofibroblasts. Our data demonstrated that F₂-IsoPs can be mediators of key events for the onset and development of lung fibrosis, such as cell proliferation, collagen synthesis and fibroblast activation. Immunocytochemistry analysis, inhibition and binding studies demonstrated the presence of the thromboxane A₂ receptor (TP receptor) on lung fibroblasts and suggested that the observed effects may be elicited through the binding to this receptor. Our data added a new perspective on the role of F₂-IsoPs in lung fibrosis by providing evidence of a profibrotic role for these mediators in the pathogenesis of pulmonary fibrosis.