Holocentric Karyotype Evolution in Rhynchospora Is Marked by Intense Numerical, Structural, and Genome Size Changes

The genome of Eleocharis vivipara elucidates the genetics of C3-C4 photosynthetic plasticity and karyotype evolution in the Cyperaceae

Eleocharis vivipara, an amphibious sedge in the Cyperaceae family, has several remarkable properties, most notably its alternate use of C3 photosynthesis underwater and C4 photosynthesis on land. However, the absence of genomic data has hindered its utility for evolutionary and genetic research. Here, we present a high-quality genome for E. vivipara, representing the first chromosome-level genome for the Eleocharis genus, with an approximate size of 965.22 Mb mainly distributed across 10 chromosomes. Its Hi-C pattern, chromosome clustering results, and one-to-one genome synteny across two subgroups indicates a tetraploid structure with chromosome count 2n = 4x = 20. Phylogenetic analysis suggests that E. vivipara diverged from Cyperus esculentus approximately 32.96 million years ago (Mya), and underwent a whole-genome duplication (WGD) about 3.5 Mya. Numerous fusion and fission events were identified between the chromosomes of E. vivipara and its close relatives. We demonstrate that E. vivipara has holocentromeres, a chromosomal feature which can maintain the stability of such chromosomal rearrangements. Experimental transplantation and cross-section studies showed its terrestrial culms developed C4 Kranz anatomy with increased number of chloroplasts in the bundle sheath (BS) cells. Gene expression and weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) showed overall elevated expression of core genes associated with the C4 pathway, and significant enrichment of genes related to modified culm anatomy and photosynthesis efficiency. We found evidence of mixed nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide - malic enzyme and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase type C4 photosynthesis in E. vivipara, and hypothesize that the evolution of C4 photosynthesis predates the WGD event. The mixed type is dominated by subgenome A and supplemented by subgenome B. Collectively, our findings not only shed light on the evolution of E. vivipara and karyotype within the Cyperaceae family, but also provide valuable insights into the transition between C3 and C4 photosynthesis, offering promising avenues for crop improvement and breeding.

Founder events and subsequent genetic bottlenecks underlie karyotype evolution in the Ibero-North African endemic Carex helodes

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Despite chromosomal evolution being one of the major drivers of diversification in plants, we do not yet have a clear view of how new chromosome rearrangements become fixed within populations, which is a crucial step forward for understanding chromosomal speciation.

METHODS

In this study, we test the role of genetic drift in the establishment of new chromosomal variants in the context of hybrid dysfunction models of chromosomal speciation. We genotyped 178 individuals from seven populations (plus 25 seeds from one population) across the geographical range of Carex helodes (Cyperaceae). We also characterized karyotype geographical patterns of the species across its distribution range. For one of the populations, we performed a detailed study of the fine-scale, local spatial distribution of its individuals and their genotypes and karyotypes.

KEY RESULTS

Synergistically, phylogeographical and karyotypic evidence revealed two main genetic groups: southwestern Iberian Peninsula vs. northwestern African populations; and within Europe our results suggest a west-to-east expansion with signals of genetic bottlenecks. Additionally, we inferred a pattern of descending dysploidy, plausibly as a result of a west-to-east process of post-glacial colonization in Europe.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results give experimental support to the role of geographical isolation, drift and inbreeding in the establishment of new karyotypes, which is key in the speciation models of hybrid dysfunction.

Chromosomal evolution in Cryptangieae Benth. (Cyperaceae): Evidence of holocentrism and pseudomonads

Cryptangieae has recently been revised based on morphology and molecular phylogeny, but cytogenetic data is still scarce. We conducted this study with the aim of investigating the occurrence of holocentric chromosomes and pseudomonads, as well as understanding the mode of chromosomal evolution in the tribe. We performed analyses of meiotic behavior, chromosome counts, and reconstruction of the ancestral state for the haploid number. We present novel cytogenetic data for eight potentially holocentric species: Cryptangium verticillatum, Krenakia junciforme, K. minarum, Lagenocarpus bracteosus, L. griseus, L. inversus, L. rigidus, and L. tenuifolius. Meiotic abnormalities were observed, with parallel spindles being particularly noteworthy. Intra-specific variations in chromosome number were not found, which may indicate an efficient genetic control for the elimination of abnormal nuclei. The inferred ancestral haploid number was n = 16, with dysploidy being the main evolutionary mechanism. At least five chromosomal fissions occurred in Krenakia (n = 21), followed by a further ascending dysploidy event in Lagenocarpus (n = 17). As proposed for Cyperaceae, it is possible that cladogenesis events in Cryptangieae were marked by numerical and structural chromosomal changes.

Oligo-barcode illuminates holocentric karyotype evolution in Rhynchospora (Cyperaceae)

Holocentric karyotypes are assumed to rapidly evolve through chromosome fusions and fissions due to the diffuse nature of their centromeres. Here, we took advantage of the recent availability of a chromosome-scale reference genome for Rhynchospora breviuscula, a model species of this holocentric genus, and developed the first set of oligo-based barcode probes for a holocentric plant. These probes were applied to 13 additional species of the genus, aiming to investigate the evolutionary dynamics driving the karyotype evolution in Rhynchospora. The two sets of probes were composed of 27,392 (green) and 23,968 (magenta) oligonucleotides (45-nt long), and generated 15 distinct FISH signals as a unique barcode pattern for the identification of all five chromosome pairs of the R. breviuscula karyotype. Oligo-FISH comparative analyzes revealed different types of rearrangements, such as fusions, fissions, putative inversions and translocations, as well as genomic duplications among the analyzed species. Two rounds of whole genome duplication (WGD) were demonstrated in R. pubera, but both analyzed accessions differed in the complex chain of events that gave rise to its large, structurally diploidized karyotypes with 2n = 10 or 12. Considering the phylogenetic relationships and divergence time of the species, the specificity and synteny of the probes were maintained up to species with a divergence time of ~25 My. However, karyotype divergence in more distant species hindered chromosome mapping and the inference of specific events. This barcoding system is a powerful tool to study chromosomal variations and genomic evolution in holocentric chromosomes of Rhynchospora species.

Evolutionary features of microspore and pollen grain development in Cyperaceae

KEY MESSAGE

Asymmetric meiosis leading to the release of pollen grains as pseudomonads is a synapomorphy in Cyperaceae, but differences in microspore development are relevant in the family's evolutionary history. Cyperaceae members present atypical microsporogenesis, in which one meiotic product is functional while the other three degenerate, culminating in pseudomonad pollen formation. Differences during development, such as pseudomonad shape and degenerative microspore positioning, are seen throughout the family, but no phylogenetic interpretation has been made regarding these variances thus far. In this study, we analyzed the early- and late-diverging sedge genera Hypolytrum and Eleocharis, respectively, while comparing them to data available in the literature and conducting an ancestral character reconstruction for pseudomonad traits. Light microscopy results show that pseudomonad development in Hypolytrum is homologous to several other sedge genera, presenting apical degenerative microspores. However, pseudomonads are round and centrally arranged in the anther locule in this case, which consists of a pleisiomorphic trait for the family. The basal positioning of degenerative microspores is restricted to Rhynchospora, consisting of an apomorphic trait for this genus. Despite these differences, ultrastructural analysis of Eleocharis pseudomonad revealed shared features with other genera studied, which include variations in chromatin condensation and cytoplasmic turnover in functional cells. These common features seem related to the different cellular fates seen during microspore development and further corroborate the synapomorphic status of pseudomonads in sedges.

Chromosomal conservatism vs chromosomal megaevolution: enigma of karyotypic evolution in Lepidoptera

In the evolution of many organisms, periods of slow genome reorganization (= chromosomal conservatism) are interrupted by bursts of numerous chromosomal changes (= chromosomal megaevolution). Using comparative analysis of chromosome-level genome assemblies, we investigated these processes in blue butterflies (Lycaenidae). We demonstrate that the phase of chromosome number conservatism is characterized by the stability of most autosomes and dynamic evolution of the sex chromosome Z, resulting in multiple variants of NeoZ chromosomes due to autosome-sex chromosome fusions. In contrast during the phase of rapid chromosomal evolution, the explosive increase in chromosome number occurs mainly through simple chromosomal fissions. We show that chromosomal megaevolution is a highly non-random canalized process, and in two phylogenetically independent Lysandra lineages, the drastic parallel increase in number of fragmented chromosomes was achieved, at least partially, through reuse of the same ancestral chromosomal breakpoints. In species showing chromosome number doubling, we found no blocks of duplicated sequences or duplicated chromosomes, thus refuting the hypothesis of polyploidy. In the studied taxa, long blocks of interstitial telomere sequences (ITSs) consist of (TTAGG)_n arrays interspersed with telomere-specific retrotransposons. ITSs are sporadically present in rapidly evolving Lysandra karyotypes, but not in the species with ancestral chromosome number. Therefore, we hypothesize that the transposition of telomeric sequences may be triggers of the rapid chromosome number increase. Finally, we discuss the hypothetical genomic and population mechanisms of chromosomal megaevolution and argue that the disproportionally high evolutionary role of the Z sex chromosome can be additionally reinforced by sex chromosome-autosome fusions and Z-chromosome inversions.

Complex patterns of ploidy in a holocentric plant clade (Schoenus, Cyperaceae) in the Cape biodiversity hotspot

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

It is unclear how widespread polyploidy is throughout the largest holocentric plant family - the Cyperaceae. Because of the prevalence of chromosomal fusions and fissions, which affect chromosome number but not genome size, it can be impossible to distinguish if individual plants are polyploids in holocentric lineages based on chromosome count data alone. Furthermore, it is unclear how differences in genome size and ploidy levels relate to environmental correlates within holocentric lineages, such as the Cyperaceae.

METHODS

We focus our analyses on tribe Schoeneae, and more specifically the southern African clade of Schoenus. We examine broad-scale patterns of genome size evolution in tribe Schoeneae and focus more intensely on determining the prevalence of polyploidy across the southern African Schoenus by inferring ploidy level with the program ChromEvol, as well as interpreting chromosome number and genome size data. We further investigate whether there are relationships between genome size/ploidy level and environmental variables across the nutrient-poor and summer-arid Cape biodiversity hotspot.

KEY RESULTS

Our results show a large increase in genome size, but not chromosome number, within Schoenus compared to other species in tribe Schoeneae. Across Schoenus, there is a positive relationship between chromosome number and genome size, and our results suggest that polyploidy is a relatively common process throughout the southern African Schoenus. At the regional scale of the Cape, we show that polyploids are more often associated with drier locations that have more variation in precipitation between dry and wet months, but these results are sensitive to the classification of ploidy level.

CONCLUSIONS

Polyploidy is relatively common in the southern African Schoenus, where a positive relationship is observed between chromosome number and genome size. Thus, there may be a high incidence of polyploidy in holocentric plants, whose cell division properties differ from monocentrics.

CMA/DAPI Banding of Plant Chromosomes

Chromosome banding based on base-specific fluorochromes, mainly double staining with chromomycin A₃ (CMA) and 4'-6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI), has been widely used since the 1970s. This technique allows the differential staining of distinct types of heterochromatin. Afterward, the fluorochromes can be easily removed and leave the preparation ready for sequential procedures such as FISH or immunodetection. Interpretations of similar bands obtained with different techniques, however, merit certain caution. Here we present a detailed protocol for CMA/DAPI staining optimized for plant cytogenetics and call attention to the most common sources of misinterpretation of DAPI bands.

Chromosome size matters: genome evolution in the cyperid clade

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

While variation in genome size and chromosome numbers and their consequences are often investigated in plants, the biological relevance of variation in chromosome size remains poorly known. Here, we examine genome and mean chromosome size in the cyperid clade (families Cyperaceae, Juncaceae and Thurniaceae), which is the largest vascular plant lineage with predominantly holocentric chromosomes.

METHODS

We measured genome size in 436 species of cyperids using flow cytometry, and augment these data with previously published datasets. We then separately compared genome and mean chromosome sizes (2C/2n) amongst the major lineages of cyperids and analysed how these two genomic traits are associated with various environmental factors using phylogenetically informed methods.

KEY RESULTS

We show that cyperids have the smallest mean chromosome sizes recorded in seed plants, with a large divergence between the smallest and largest values. We found that cyperid species with smaller chromosomes have larger geographical distributions and that there is a strong inverse association between mean chromosome size and number across this lineage.

CONCLUSIONS

The distinct patterns in genome size and mean chromosome size across the cyperids might be explained by holokinetic drive. The numerous small chromosomes might function to increase genetic diversity in this lineage where crossovers are limited during meiosis.

Chromosome-scale genome assemblies and annotations for Poales species Carex cristatella, Carex scoparia, Juncus effusus, and Juncus inflexus

The majority of sequenced genomes in the monocots are from species belonging to Poaceae, which include many commercially important crops. Here, we expand the number of sequenced genomes from the monocots to include the genomes of 4 related cyperids: Carex cristatella and Carex scoparia from Cyperaceae and Juncus effusus and Juncus inflexus from Juncaceae. The high-quality, chromosome-scale genome sequences from these 4 cyperids were assembled by combining whole-genome shotgun sequencing of Nanopore long reads, Illumina short reads, and Hi-C sequencing data. Some members of the Cyperaceae and Juncaceae are known to possess holocentric chromosomes. We examined the repeat landscapes in our sequenced genomes to search for potential repeats associated with centromeres. Several large satellite repeat families, comprising 3.2–9.5% of our sequenced genomes, showed dispersed distribution of large satellite repeat clusters across all Carex chromosomes, with few instances of these repeats clustering in the same chromosomal regions. In contrast, most large Juncus satellite repeats were clustered in a single location on each chromosome, with sporadic instances of large satellite repeats throughout the Juncus genomes. Recognizable transposable elements account for about 20% of each of the 4 genome assemblies, with the Carex genomes containing more DNA transposons than retrotransposons while the converse is true for the Juncus genomes. These genome sequences and annotations will facilitate better comparative analysis within monocots.

Meiosis Progression and Recombination in Holocentric Plants: What Is Known?

Differently from the common monocentric organization of eukaryotic chromosomes, the so-called holocentric chromosomes present many centromeric regions along their length. This chromosomal organization can be found in animal and plant lineages, whose distribution suggests that it has evolved independently several times. Holocentric chromosomes present an advantage: even broken chromosome parts can be correctly segregated upon cell division. However, the evolution of holocentricity brought about consequences to nuclear processes and several adaptations are necessary to cope with this new organization. Centromeres of monocentric chromosomes are involved in a two-step cohesion release during meiosis. To deal with that holocentric lineages developed different adaptations, like the chromosome remodeling strategy in Caenorhabditis elegans or the inverted meiosis in plants. Furthermore, the frequency of recombination at or around centromeres is normally very low and the presence of centromeric regions throughout the entire length of the chromosomes could potentially pose a problem for recombination in holocentric organisms. However, meiotic recombination happens, with exceptions, in those lineages in spite of their holocentric organization suggesting that the role of centromere as recombination suppressor might be altered in these lineages. Most of the available information about adaptations to meiosis in holocentric organisms is derived from the animal model C. elegans. As holocentricity evolved independently in different lineages, adaptations observed in C. elegans probably do not apply to other lineages and very limited research is available for holocentric plants. Currently, we still lack a holocentric model for plants, but good candidates may be found among Cyperaceae, a large angiosperm family. Besides holocentricity, chiasmatic and achiasmatic inverted meiosis are found in the family. Here, we introduce the main concepts of meiotic constraints and adaptations with special focus in meiosis progression and recombination in holocentric plants. Finally, we present the main challenges and perspectives for future research in the field of chromosome biology and meiosis in holocentric plants.