Engineering Smut Resistance in Maize by Site-Directed Mutagenesis of LIPOXYGENASE 3

Genome editing for improvement of biotic and abiotic stress tolerance in cereals

Global agricultural production must quadruple by 2050 to fulfil the needs of a growing global population, but climate change exacerbates the difficulty. Cereals are a very important source of food for the world population. Improved cultivars are needed, with better resistance to abiotic stresses like drought, salt, and increasing temperatures, and resilience to biotic stressors like bacterial and fungal infections, and pest infestation. A popular, versatile, and helpful method for functional genomics and crop improvement is genome editing. Rapidly developing genome editing techniques including clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) and CRISPR-associated protein (Cas) are very important. This review focuses on how CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing might enhance cereals' agronomic qualities in the face of climate change, providing important insights for future applications. Genome editing efforts should focus on improving characteristics that confer tolerance to conditions exacerbated by climate change (e.g. drought, salt, rising temperatures). Improved water usage efficiency, salt tolerance, and heat stress resilience are all desirable characteristics. Cultivars that are more resilient to insect infestations and a wide range of biotic stressors, such as bacterial and fungal diseases, should be created. Genome editing can precisely target genes linked to disease resistance pathways to strengthen cereals' natural defensive systems.

Breeding for improved digestibility and processing of lignocellulosic biomass in Zea mays

Forage maize is a versatile crop extensively utilized for animal nutrition in agriculture and holds promise as a valuable resource for the production of fermentable sugars in the biorefinery sector. Within this context, the carbohydrate fraction of the lignocellulosic biomass undergoes deconstruction during ruminal digestion and the saccharification process. However, the cell wall's natural resistance towards enzymatic degradation poses a significant challenge during both processes. This so-called biomass recalcitrance is primarily attributed to the presence of lignin and ferulates in the cell walls. Consequently, maize varieties with a reduced lignin or ferulate content or an altered lignin composition can have important beneficial effects on cell wall digestibility. Considerable efforts in genetic improvement have been dedicated towards enhancing cell wall digestibility, benefiting agriculture, the biorefinery sector and the environment. In part I of this paper, we review conventional and advanced breeding methods used in the genetic improvement of maize germplasm. In part II, we zoom in on maize mutants with altered lignin for improved digestibility and biomass processing.

BcWRKY1 confers Botrytis cinerea susceptibility via inhibiting JA biosynthesis

WRKYs play important roles in plant stress resistance. However, the role of WRKYs in non-heading Chinese cabbage (Brassica campestris ssp. chinensis) against Botrytis cinerea (B. cinerea) remains poorly understood. Herein, the expression of BcWRKY1 was induced by B. cinerea. Further, the role of BcWRKY1 in B. cinerea infection was identified. Silencing of BcWRKY1 in non-heading Chinese cabbage enhanced plant resistance to B. cinerea. After B. cinerea inoculation, BcWRKY1-silencing plants exhibited lower reactive oxygen species (ROS) content, higher jasmonic acid (JA) content, and the expression level of JA biosynthesis genes, BcOPR3, BcLOX3-1 and BcLOX3-2 were upregulated. Overexpression of BcWRKY1 in Arabidopsis exhibited a complementary phenotype. By directly targeting W-boxes in the promoter of BcLOX3-2, BcWRKY1 inhibited the transcription of this gene. In addition, 13 candidate interacting proteins of BcWRKY1 were identified by yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) screening, and the interaction between BcWRKY1 and BcCaM6 weakened the inhibition of BcLOX3-2. In summary, our findings suggest that BcWRKY1 interacts with BcCaM6 to negatively regulate disease resistance.

A critical review on bioaerosols-dispersal of crop pathogenic microorganisms and their impact on crop yield

Bioaerosols are potential sources of pathogenic microorganisms that can cause devastating outbreaks of global crop diseases. Various microorganisms, insects and viroids are known to cause severe crop diseases impeding global agro-economy. Such losses threaten global food security, as it is estimated that almost 821 million people are underfed due to global crisis in food production. It is estimated that global population would reach 10 billion by 2050. Hence, it is imperative to substantially increase global food production to about 60% more than the existing levels. To meet the increasing demand, it is essential to control crop diseases and increase yield. Better understanding of the dispersive nature of bioaerosols, seasonal variations, regional diversity and load would enable in formulating improved strategies to control disease severity, onset and spread. Further, insights on regional and global bioaerosol composition and dissemination would help in predicting and preventing endemic and epidemic outbreaks of crop diseases. Advanced knowledge of the factors influencing disease onset and progress, mechanism of pathogen attachment and penetration, dispersal of pathogens, life cycle and the mode of infection, aid the development and implementation of species-specific and region-specific preventive strategies to control crop diseases. Intriguingly, development of R gene-mediated resistant varieties has shown promising results in controlling crop diseases. Forthcoming studies on the development of an appropriately stacked R gene with a wide range of resistance to crop diseases would enable proper management and yield. The article reviews various aspects of pathogenic bioaerosols, pathogen invasion and infestation, crop diseases and yield.

Editing Metabolism, Sex, and Microbiome: How Can We Help Poplar Resist Pathogens?

Poplar (Populus) is a genus of woody plants of great economic value. Due to the growing economic importance of poplar, there is a need to ensure its stable growth by increasing its resistance to pathogens. Genetic engineering can create organisms with improved traits faster than traditional methods, and with the development of CRISPR/Cas-based genome editing systems, scientists have a new highly effective tool for creating valuable genotypes. In this review, we summarize the latest research data on poplar diseases, the biology of their pathogens and how these plants resist pathogens. In the final section, we propose to plant male or mixed poplar populations; consider the genes of the MLO group, transcription factors of the WRKY and MYB families and defensive proteins BbChit1, LJAMP2, MsrA2 and PtDef as the most promising targets for genetic engineering; and also pay attention to the possibility of microbiome engineering.

CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing techniques and new breeding strategies in cereals - current status, improvements, and perspectives

Cereal crops, including triticeae species (barley, wheat, rye), as well as edible cereals (wheat, corn, rice, oat, rye, sorghum), are significant suppliers for human consumption, livestock feed, and breweries. Over the past half-century, modern varieties of cereal crops with increased yields have contributed to global food security. However, presently cultivated elite crop varieties were developed mainly for optimal environmental conditions. Thus, it has become evident that taking into account the ongoing climate changes, currently a priority should be given to developing new stress-tolerant cereal cultivars. It is necessary to enhance the accuracy of methods and time required to generate new cereal cultivars with the desired features to adapt to climate change and keep up with the world population expansion. The CRISPR/Cas9 system has been developed as a powerful and versatile genome editing tool to achieve desirable traits, such as developing high-yielding, stress-tolerant, and disease-resistant transgene-free lines in major cereals. Despite recent advances, the CRISPR/Cas9 application in cereals faces several challenges, including a significant amount of time required to develop transgene-free lines, laboriousness, and a limited number of genotypes that may be used for the transformation and in vitro regeneration. Additionally, developing elite lines through genome editing has been restricted in many countries, especially Europe and New Zealand, due to a lack of flexibility in GMO regulations. This review provides a comprehensive update to researchers interested in improving cereals using gene-editing technologies, such as CRISPR/Cas9. We will review some critical and recent studies on crop improvements and their contributing factors to superior cereals through gene-editing technologies.

From Petri Dish to Field: Plant Tissue Culture and Genetic Engineering of Oats for Improved Agricultural Outcomes

Oats (Avena sativa) hold immense economic and nutritional value as a versatile crop. They have long been recognized as an exceptional choice for human consumption and animal feed. Oats' unique components, including proteins, starches, and β-glucans, have led to its widespread use in various food products such as bread, noodles, flakes, and milk. The popularity of oat milk as a vegan alternative to dairy milk has soared due to the increasing number of vegetarians/vegans and growing environmental awareness. Oat milk offers a sustainable option with reduced greenhouse gas emissions during its production, rendering it an appropriate choice for individuals who are lactose-intolerant or have dairy allergies. To ensure improved adaptability and enhanced nutrition, the development of new oat varieties is crucial, considering factors like cultivation, climate, and growing conditions. Plant cell culture plays a crucial role in both traditional and contemporary breeding methods. In classical breeding, plant cell culture facilitates the rapid production of double haploid plants, which can be employed to accelerate the breeding process. In modern breeding methods, it enables genetic manipulation and precise genome editing at the cellular level. This review delves into the importance of oats and their diverse applications, highlighting the advantages of plant cell culture in both classical and modern breeding methods. Specifically, it provides an overview of plant tissue culture, encompassing genetic transformation, haploid technology, protoplast technology, and genome editing.

Genome-Wide Identification and Expression Analysis of Lipoxygenase Genes in Rose (Rosa chinensis)

Lipoxygenases (LOX) play pivotal roles in plant resistance to stresses. However, no study has been conducted on LOX gene identification at the whole genome scale in rose (Rosa chinensis). In this study, a total of 17 RcLOX members were identified in the rose genome. The members could be classified into three groups: 9-LOX, Type I 13-LOX, and Type II 13-LOX. Similar gene structures and protein domains can be found in RcLOX members. The RcLOX genes were spread among all seven chromosomes, with unbalanced distributions, and several tandem and proximal duplication events were found among RcLOX members. Expressions of the RcLOX genes were tissue-specific, while every RcLOX gene could be detected in at least one tissue. The expression levels of most RcLOX genes could be up-regulated by aphid infestation, suggesting potential roles in aphid resistance. Our study offers a systematic analysis of the RcLOX genes in rose, providing useful information not only for further gene cloning and functional exploration but also for the study of aphid resistance.

The Effect of Ustilago maydis and Delayed Harvesting on A- and B-Type Trichothecene Concentrations in Maize Grain

The aim of this study was to investigate whether, in the context of a higher incidence of Ustilago maydis and Fusarium spp. at optimal and delayed harvest times, a higher incidence of mycotoxin contamination in maize grains could be expected. The field experiment was carried out at the Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry experimental fields over three consecutive years (2020-2022). Two maize hybrids (Duxxbury and Lapriora) with different FAO numbers were used. The experimental design in the field was a randomized complete block design. Harvesting took place at three different times: first at physiological maturity, and then 10 (±2) and 20 (±2) days after the first harvest. Each hybrid had four repetitions at different harvest times. The U. maydis infection was only detected in 2021 and after the first harvest cobs were further divided into four different groups with four repetitions: healthy cobs, cobs visually infected with Fusarium spp., cobs visually infected with common smut, and cobs visually infected with both pathogens. No U. maydis-damaged maize cobs were found in 2020 and 2022. The levels of Fusarium microscopic fungi in maize grains were also from 4 to 16 times higher in 2021 than in 2020 and 2022. Harvest delays in 2020 led to a significant deoxynivalenol concentration increase in the Duxxbury hybrid and an HT-2 concentration increase in the Lapriora hybrid. In 2021, deoxynivalenol, 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol, 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol, and HT-2 concentrations significantly rose in both hybrids, but the T-2 concentration significantly increased only in the Lapriora hybrid. Deoxynivalenol concentrations were, respectively, 110 and 14.6 times higher than in cobs only infected with Fusarium spp. or U. maydis. Concentrations of 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol were, respectively, 60, 67, and 43 times higher than in asymptomatic cobs and cobs only infected with Fusarium spp. or U. maydis. Cobs contaminated with both pathogens also had higher concentrations of 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol. T-2 and HT-2 were detected in maize grains harvested from cobs infected only with Fusarium spp. The presence of U. maydis and Fusarium fungi in maize cobs, along with harvest delays, led to significant increases in mycotoxin concentrations, highlighting the importance of timely harvesting and pathogen management to mitigate mycotoxin contamination in maize grains.

Examination of Different Sporidium Numbers of Ustilago maydis Infection on Two Hungarian Sweet Corn Hybrids' Characteristics at Vegetative and Generative Stages

Corn smut is one of the major diseases in corn production. The cob infection causes high economic and quality loss. This research investigated the effects of three different concentrations of corn smut infection (2500, 5000, and 10,000 sporidia/mL) on two Hungarian sweet corn hybrids (Desszert 73 and Noa). Plants were infected at the vegetative (V4-V5) and the generative (V7) stages. The effects of the corn smut infection were evaluated at 7 and 14 days after the pathogen infection (DAPI) at vegetative and at 21 DAPI at generative stages. The photosynthetic pigments (relative chlorophyll, chlorophyll-a and b, and carotenoids), malondialdehyde (MDA), and proline concentration, activities of the antioxidant enzymes [ascorbate peroxidase (APX), guaiacol peroxidase (POX), and superoxide dismutase (SOD)], morphological characteristics (plant height, stem and cob diameter, cob length, cob and kernel weights), mineral contents (Al, B, Ca, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, P, Pb, S, Sr, and Zn), and quality parameters (dry matter, fiber, fat, ash, nitrogen, and protein) were measured. At both sampling times (7 and 14 DAPI) in both hybrids, the corn smut infection reduced the photosynthetic pigments (relative chlorophyll, chlorophylls-a, and b, and carotenoids) irrespective of the spore concentration. Under the same conditions, the MDA and proline contents, as well as the activities of APX, POX, and SOD increased at both sampling times. The negative effects of the corn smut infection were also observed at the generative stage. Only the 10,000 sporidia/mL of corn smut caused symptoms (tumor growth) on the cobs of both hybrids at 21 DAPI. Similarly, this treatment impacted adversely the cob characteristics (reduced cob length, kernel weight, and 100 grains fresh and dry weight) for both hybrids. In addition, crude fat and protein content, Mg, and Mn concentration of grains also decreased in both hybrids while the concentration of Al and Ca increased. Based on these results, the sweet corn hybrids were more susceptible to corn smut at the vegetative stage than at the generative stage.

CRISPR-Cas technology opens a new era for the creation of novel maize germplasms

Maize (Zea mays) is one of the most important food crops in the world with the greatest global production, and contributes to satiating the demands for human food, animal feed, and biofuels. With population growth and deteriorating environment, efficient and innovative breeding strategies to develop maize varieties with high yield and stress resistance are urgently needed to augment global food security and sustainable agriculture. CRISPR-Cas-mediated genome-editing technology (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-Cas (CRISPR-associated)) has emerged as an effective and powerful tool for plant science and crop improvement, and is likely to accelerate crop breeding in ways dissimilar to crossbreeding and transgenic technologies. In this review, we summarize the current applications and prospects of CRISPR-Cas technology in maize gene-function studies and the generation of new germplasm for increased yield, specialty corns, plant architecture, stress response, haploid induction, and male sterility. Optimization of gene editing and genetic transformation systems for maize is also briefly reviewed. Lastly, the challenges and new opportunities that arise with the use of the CRISPR-Cas technology for maize genetic improvement are discussed.

A detailed landscape of CRISPR-Cas-mediated plant disease and pest management

Genome editing technology has rapidly evolved to knock-out genes, create targeted genetic variation, install precise insertion/deletion and single nucleotide changes, and perform large-scale alteration. The flexible and multipurpose editing technologies have started playing a substantial role in the field of plant disease management. CRISPR-Cas has reduced many limitations of earlier technologies and emerged as a versatile toolbox for genome manipulation. This review summarizes the phenomenal progress of the use of the CRISPR toolkit in the field of plant pathology. CRISPR-Cas toolbox aids in the basic studies on host-pathogen interaction, in identifying virulence genes in pathogens, deciphering resistance and susceptibility factors in host plants, and engineering host genome for developing resistance. We extensively reviewed the successful genome editing applications for host plant resistance against a wide range of biotic factors, including viruses, fungi, oomycetes, bacteria, nematodes, insect pests, and parasitic plants. Recent use of CRISPR-Cas gene drive to suppress the population of pathogens and pests has also been discussed. Furthermore, we highlight exciting new uses of the CRISPR-Cas system as diagnostic tools, which rapidly detect pathogenic microorganism. This comprehensive yet concise review discusses innumerable strategies to reduce the burden of crop protection.

Effector-mediated relocalization of a maize lipoxygenase protein triggers susceptibility to Ustilago maydis

As the gall-inducing smut fungus Ustilago maydis colonizes maize (Zea mays) plants, it secretes a complex effector blend that suppresses host defense responses, including production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and redirects host metabolism to facilitate colonization. We show that the U. maydis effector ROS burst interfering protein 1 (Rip1), which is involved in pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP)-triggered suppression of host immunity, is functionally conserved in several other monocot-infecting smut fungi. We also have identified a conserved C-terminal motif essential for Rip1-mediated PAMP-triggered suppression of the ROS burst. The maize susceptibility factor lipoxygenase 3 (Zmlox3) bound by Rip1 was relocalized to the nucleus, leading to partial suppression of the ROS burst. Relocalization was independent of its enzymatic activity, revealing a distinct function for ZmLox3. Most importantly, whereas Zmlox3 maize mutant plants showed increased resistance to U. maydis wild-type strains, rip1 deletion strains infecting the Zmlox3 mutant overcame this effect. This could indicate that Rip1-triggered host resistance depends on ZmLox3 to be suppressed and that lox3 mutation-based resistance of maize to U. maydis requires functional Rip1. Together, our results reveal that Rip1 acts in several cellular compartments to suppress immunity and that targeting of ZmLox3 by Rip1 is responsible for the suppression of Rip1-dependent reduced susceptibility of maize to U. maydis.

The Physiological and Biochemical Responses of European Chestnut (Castanea sativa L.) to Blight Fungus (Cryphonectria parasitica (Murill) Barr)

The most important disease of European chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.) is chestnut blight caused by the fungus Cryphonectria parasitica (Murrill) Barr which induces yield reduction in Europe and North America. This study aimed to investigate the impacts of C. parasitica infection on the physiological and biochemical characteristics of European chestnut at two different growth stages, 3 and 6 weeks after the infection. The amount of photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll-a, chlorophyll-b, and carotenoids), the relative chlorophyll content, and the photochemical efficiency of the photosystem II (PSII) were measured in the leaves above and below the virulent and hypovirulent C. parasitica infections. The highest values were measured in the control leaves, the lowest values were in the leaves of the upper part of virulent necrosis. Antioxidant enzyme activities such as ascorbate peroxidase (APX), guaiacol peroxidase (POD), and superoxide dismutase (SOD), proline, and malondialdehyde concentrations were also investigated. In each of these measured values, the lowest level was measured in the control leaves, while the highest was in leaves infected with the virulent fungal strain. By measuring all of these stress indicator parameters the responses of chestnut to C. parasitica infection can be monitored and determined. The results of this study showed that the virulent strain caused more pronounced defense responses of chestnut’s defense system. The measured parameter above the infection was more exposed to the blight fungus disease relative to the leaves below the infection.

Evolution and functional diversity of lipoxygenase (LOX) genes in allotetraploid rapeseed (Brassica napus L.)

Lipoxygenase (LOX, EC 1.13.11.12) is a non-haeme iron-containing dioxygenase family that catalyzes the oxygenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids into bio-functionally fatty acid diverse (oxylipins) and plays vital role in plant growth and development and responses to abiotic and biotic stresses. Though LOX genes have been studied in many plant species, their roles in Brassicaceae species are still unknown. Here, a set of 14, 18, and 33 putative LOX genes were identified in Brassica rapa, Brassica oleracea and Brassica napus (allotetraploid rapeseed), respectively, which could be divided into 9-LOX (LOX1/5), 13-LOX type I (LOX3/4/6), and type II (LOX2) subgroups. There was an expansion of LOX2 orthologous genes in Brassicaceae. Most of the LOX genes are intron rich and conserved in gene structure, and the LOX proteins all have the conserved lipoxygenase and PLAT/LH2 domain. Ka/Ks ratio revealed that the majority of LOXs underwent purifying selection in Brassicaceae. The light-, ABA-, MeJA-related cis-elements and MYB-binding sites in the promoters of BnaLOXs were the most abundant. BnaLOXs displayed different spatiotemporal expression patterns and various abiotic/biotic stress responsive expression patterns. BnaLOX1/5 were slightly or no response to phytohormones and abiotic stresses. BnaLOX3/4/6 predominantly express in roots and were strongly up-regulated by salinity and PEG treatments, and BnaLOX3/4 were the methyl jasmonate (MeJA) and salicylic acid (SA) early response genes and strongly induced by infection of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum; while the BnaLOX2 members predominantly express in stamens, were MeJA and SA continuous response genes and strongly repressed by cold, heat and waterlogging treatments in leaves. Our results are useful for understanding the biological functions of the BnaLOX genes in allotetraploid rapeseed.

Transcriptome and Oxylipin Profiling Joint Analysis Reveals Opposite Roles of 9-Oxylipins and Jasmonic Acid in Maize Resistance to Gibberella Stalk Rot

Gibberella stalk rot caused by Fusarium graminearum is one of the devastating diseases of maize that causes significant yield losses worldwide. The molecular mechanisms regulating defense against this pathogen remain poorly understood. According to recent studies, a major oxylipin hormone produced by 13-lipoxygenases (LOX) namely jasmonic acid (JA) has been associated with maize susceptibility to GSR. However, the specific roles of numerous 9-LOX-derived oxylipins in defense against Gibberella stalk rot (GSR) remain unexplained. In this study, we have shown that disruption of a 9-LOX gene, ZmLOX5, resulted in increased susceptibility to GSR, indicating its role in defense. To understand how ZmLOX5 regulates GSR resistance, we conducted transcriptome and oxylipin profiling using a zmlox5-3 mutant and near-isogenic wild type B73, upon infection with F. graminearum. The results showed that JA biosynthetic pathway genes were highly up-regulated, whereas multiple 9-LOX pathway genes were down-regulated in the infected zmlox5-3 mutant. Furthermore, oxylipin profiling of the mutant revealed significantly higher contents of several jasmonates but relatively lower levels of 9-oxylipins in zmlox5-3 upon infection. In contrast, B73 and W438, a more resistant inbred line, displayed relatively lower levels of JAs, but a considerable increase of 9-oxylipins. These results suggest antagonistic interaction between 9-oxylipins and JAs, wherein 9-oxylipins contribute to resistance while JAs facilitate susceptibility to F. graminearum.

Targeted genome modifications in cereal crops

The recent advent of customizable endonucleases has led to remarkable advances in genetic engineering, as these molecular scissors allow for the targeted introduction of mutations or even precisely predefined genetic modifications into virtually any genomic target site of choice. Thanks to its unprecedented precision, efficiency, and functional versatility, this technology, commonly referred to as genome editing, has become an effective force not only in basic research devoted to the elucidation of gene function, but also for knowledge-based improvement of crop traits. Among the different platforms currently available for site-directed genome modifications, RNA-guided clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-associated (Cas) endonucleases have proven to be the most powerful. This review provides an application-oriented overview of the development of customizable endonucleases, current approaches to cereal crop breeding, and future opportunities in this field.

CRISPR/Cas: a Nobel Prize award-winning precise genome editing technology for gene therapy and crop improvement

Since it was first recognized in bacteria and archaea as a mechanism for innate viral immunity in the early 2010s, clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein (Cas) has rapidly been developed into a robust, multifunctional genome editing tool with many uses. Following the discovery of the initial CRISPR/Cas-based system, the technology has been advanced to facilitate a multitude of different functions. These include development as a base editor, prime editor, epigenetic editor, and CRISPR interference (CRISPRi) and CRISPR activator (CRISPRa) gene regulators. It can also be used for chromatin and RNA targeting and imaging. Its applications have proved revolutionary across numerous biological fields, especially in biomedical and agricultural improvement. As a diagnostic tool, CRISPR has been developed to aid the detection and screening of both human and plant diseases, and has even been applied during the current coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. CRISPR/Cas is also being trialed as a new form of gene therapy for treating various human diseases, including cancers, and has aided drug development. In terms of agricultural breeding, precise targeting of biological pathways via CRISPR/Cas has been key to regulating molecular biosynthesis and allowing modification of proteins, starch, oil, and other functional components for crop improvement. Adding to this, CRISPR/Cas has been shown capable of significantly enhancing both plant tolerance to environmental stresses and overall crop yield via the targeting of various agronomically important gene regulators. Looking to the future, increasing the efficiency and precision of CRISPR/Cas delivery systems and limiting off-target activity are two major challenges for wider application of the technology. This review provides an in-depth overview of current CRISPR development, including the advantages and disadvantages of the technology, recent applications, and future considerations.