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Liu XY, Cai XY, Wu HJ, Wan Y, Wei SF, Xu HJ. Salivary proteins NlSP5 and NlSP7 are required for optimal feeding and fitness of the brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2024; 80:4297-4305. [PMID: 38629775 DOI: 10.1002/ps.8134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Revised: 03/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Saliva has a crucial role in determining the compatibility between piercing-sucking insects and their hosts. The brown planthopper (BPH) Nilaparvata lugens, a notorious pest of rice in East and Southeast Asia, secretes gelling and watery saliva when feeding on rice sap. Nlsalivap-5 (NlSP5) and Nlsalivap-7 (NlSP7) were identified as potential planthopper-specific gelling saliva components, but their biological functions remain unknown. RESULTS Here, we showed by transcriptomic analyses that NlSP5 and NlSP7 were biasedly expressed in the salivary glands of BPHs. Using the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/Cas9-mediated genome-editing system, we constructed NlSP5 and NlSP7 homozygous mutants (NlSP5-/- and NlSP7-/-). Electrical penetration graph assay showed that NlSP5-/- and NlSP7-/- mutants exhibited abnormal probing and feeding behaviors. Bioassays revealed that the loss-of-function of NlSP5 and NlSP7 significantly reduced the fitness of BPHs, with extended developmental duration, shortened lifespan, reduced weight, and impaired fecundity and hatching rates. CONCLUSION These findings deepen our understanding of the BPH-host interaction and may provide potential targets for the management of rice planthoppers. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin-Yang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, Key Laboratory of Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Insect Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xin-Yu Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, Key Laboratory of Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Insect Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Hui-Jie Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, Key Laboratory of Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Insect Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yi Wan
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, Key Laboratory of Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Insect Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Sheng-Fei Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, Key Laboratory of Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Insect Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Hai-Jun Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, Key Laboratory of Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Insect Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
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2
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Pavithran S, Murugan M, Mannu J, Sathyaseelan C, Balasubramani V, Harish S, Natesan S. Salivary gland transcriptomics of the cotton aphid Aphis gossypii and comparative analysis with other sap-sucking insects. ARCHIVES OF INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2024; 116:e22123. [PMID: 38860775 DOI: 10.1002/arch.22123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2024] [Revised: 05/08/2024] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/12/2024]
Abstract
Aphids are sap-sucking insects responsible for crop losses and a severe threat to crop production. Proteins in the aphid saliva are integral in establishing an interaction between aphids and plants and are responsible for host plant adaptation. The cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii (Hemiptera: Aphididae) is a major pest of Gossypium hirsutum. Despite extensive studies of the salivary proteins of various aphid species, the components of A. gossypii salivary glands are unknown. In this study, we identified 123,008 transcripts from the salivary gland of A. gossypii. Among those, 2933 proteins have signal peptides with no transmembrane domain known to be secreted from the cell upon feeding. The transcriptome includes proteins with more comprehensive functions such as digestion, detoxification, regulating host defenses, regulation of salivary glands, and a large set of uncharacterized proteins. Comparative analysis of salivary proteins of different aphids and other insects with A. gossypii revealed that 183 and 88 orthologous clusters were common in the Aphididae and non-Aphididae groups, respectively. The structure prediction for highly expressed salivary proteins indicated that most possess an intrinsically disordered region. These results provide valuable reference data for exploring novel functions of salivary proteins in A. gossypii with their host interactions. The identified proteins may help develop a sustainable way to manage aphid pests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanmugasundram Pavithran
- Department of Agricultural Entomology, Centre for Plant Protection Studies, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India
| | - Marimuthu Murugan
- Department of Agricultural Entomology, Centre for Plant Protection Studies, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India
| | - Jayakanthan Mannu
- Department of Plant Molecular Biology and Bioinformatics, Centre for Plant Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India
| | - Chakkarai Sathyaseelan
- Department of Plant Molecular Biology and Bioinformatics, Centre for Plant Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India
- Livestrong Cancer Institutes, Department of Oncology, Dell Medical School, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, USA
| | - Venkatasamy Balasubramani
- Department of Agricultural Entomology, Centre for Plant Protection Studies, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India
| | - Sankarasubramanian Harish
- Department of Plant Pathology, Centre for Plant Protection Studies, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India
| | - Senthil Natesan
- Department of Plant Molecular Biology and Bioinformatics, Centre for Plant Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India
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Ma X, Yin Z, Li H, Guo J. Roles of herbivorous insects salivary proteins. Heliyon 2024; 10:e29201. [PMID: 38601688 PMCID: PMC11004886 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e29201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2023] [Revised: 04/01/2024] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 04/12/2024] Open
Abstract
The intricate relationship between herbivorous insects and plants has evolved over millions of years, central to this dynamic interaction are salivary proteins (SPs), which mediate key processes ranging from nutrient acquisition to plant defense manipulation. SPs, sourced from salivary glands, intestinal regurgitation or acquired through horizontal gene transfer, exhibit remarkable functional versatility, influencing insect development, behavior, and adhesion mechanisms. Moreover, SPs play pivotal roles in modulating plant defenses, to induce or inhibit plant defenses as elicitors or effectors. In this review, we delve into the multifaceted roles of SPs in herbivorous insects, highlighting their diverse impacts on insect physiology and plant responses. Through a comprehensive exploration of SP functions, this review aims to deepen our understanding of plant-insect interactions and foster advancements in both fundamental research and practical applications in plant-insect interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyi Ma
- Institute of Entomology, Guizhou University, Guiyang, 550025, PR China
- Scientific Observing and Experimental Station of Crop Pest in Guiyang, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the PR China, Guiyang, 550025, PR China
| | - Zhiyong Yin
- Institute of Entomology, Guizhou University, Guiyang, 550025, PR China
- Scientific Observing and Experimental Station of Crop Pest in Guiyang, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the PR China, Guiyang, 550025, PR China
| | - Haiyin Li
- Institute of Entomology, Guizhou University, Guiyang, 550025, PR China
- Scientific Observing and Experimental Station of Crop Pest in Guiyang, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the PR China, Guiyang, 550025, PR China
| | - Jianjun Guo
- Institute of Entomology, Guizhou University, Guiyang, 550025, PR China
- Scientific Observing and Experimental Station of Crop Pest in Guiyang, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the PR China, Guiyang, 550025, PR China
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4
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Cui JR, Zhou B, Tang YJ, Zhou JY, Ren L, Liu F, Hoffmann AA, Hong XY. A new spider mite elicitor triggers plant defence and promotes resistance to herbivores. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2024; 75:1493-1509. [PMID: 37952109 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erad452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/14/2023]
Abstract
Herbivore-associated elicitors (HAEs) are active molecules produced by herbivorous insects. Recognition of HAEs by plants induces defence that resist herbivore attacks. We previously demonstrated that the tomato red spider mite Tetranychus evansi triggered defence in Nicotiana benthamiana. However, our knowledge of HAEs from T. evansi remains limited. Here, we characterize a novel HAE, Te16, from T. evansi and dissect its function in mite-plant interactions. We investigate the effects of Te16 on spider mites and plants by heterologous expression, virus-induced gene silencing assay, and RNA interference. Te16 induces cell death, reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation, callose deposition, and jasmonate (JA)-related responses in N. benthamiana leaves. Te16-mediated cell death requires a calcium signalling pathway, cytoplasmic localization, the plant co-receptor BAK1, and the signalling components SGT1 and HSP90. The active region of Te16-induced cell death is located at amino acids 114-293. Moreover, silencing Te16 gene in T. evansi reduces spider mite survival and hatchability, but expressing Te16 in N. benthamiana leaves enhances plant resistance to herbivores. Finally, Te16 gene is specific to Tetranychidae species and is highly conserved in activating plant immunity. Our findings reveal a novel salivary protein produced by spider mites that elicits plant defence and resistance to insects, providing valuable clues for pest management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia-Rong Cui
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, China
| | - Bin Zhou
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, China
| | - Yi-Jing Tang
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, China
| | - Jia-Yi Zhou
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, China
| | - Lu Ren
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, China
| | - Fan Liu
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, China
| | - Ary A Hoffmann
- School of BioSciences, Bio21 Institute, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Xiao-Yue Hong
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, China
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5
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Gao H, Lin X, Yuan X, Zou J, Zhang H, Zhang Y, Liu Z. The salivary chaperone protein NlDNAJB9 of Nilaparvata lugens activates plant immune responses. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2023; 74:6874-6888. [PMID: 37103882 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erad154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
The brown planthopper (BPH) Nilaparvata lugens (Stål) is a main pest on rice. It secretes saliva to regulate plant defense responses, when penetrating rice plant and sucking phloem sap through its stylet. However, the molecular mechanisms of BPH salivary proteins regulating plant defense responses remain poorly understood. A N. lugens DNAJ protein (NlDNAJB9) gene was highly expressed in salivary glands, and the knock down of NlDNAJB9 significantly enhanced honeydew excretion and fecundity of the BPH. NlDNAJB9 could induce plant cell death, and the overexpression of NlDNAJB9 gene in Nicotiana benthamiana induced calcium signaling, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades, reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation, jasmonic acid (JA) hormone signaling and callose deposition. The results from different NlDNAJB9 deletion mutants indicated that the nuclear localization of NlDNAJB9 was not necessary to induce cell death. The DNAJ domain was the key region to induce cell death, and the overexpression of DNAJ domain in N. benthamiana significantly inhibited insect feeding and pathogenic infection. NlDNAJB9 might interact indirectly with NlHSC70-3 to regulate plant defense responses. NlDNAJB9 and its orthologs were highly conserved in three planthopper species, and could induce ROS burst and cell death in plants. Our study provides new insights into the molecular mechanisms of insect-plant interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoli Gao
- Key laboratory of Integrated Management of Crop Diseases and Pests (Ministry of Education), College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Weigang 1, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Xumin Lin
- Key laboratory of Integrated Management of Crop Diseases and Pests (Ministry of Education), College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Weigang 1, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Xiaowei Yuan
- Key laboratory of Integrated Management of Crop Diseases and Pests (Ministry of Education), College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Weigang 1, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Jianzheng Zou
- Key laboratory of Integrated Management of Crop Diseases and Pests (Ministry of Education), College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Weigang 1, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Huihui Zhang
- Key laboratory of Integrated Management of Crop Diseases and Pests (Ministry of Education), College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Weigang 1, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Yixi Zhang
- Key laboratory of Integrated Management of Crop Diseases and Pests (Ministry of Education), College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Weigang 1, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Zewen Liu
- Key laboratory of Integrated Management of Crop Diseases and Pests (Ministry of Education), College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Weigang 1, Nanjing 210095, China
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Wang H, Shi S, Hua W. Advances of herbivore-secreted elicitors and effectors in plant-insect interactions. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1176048. [PMID: 37404545 PMCID: PMC10317074 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1176048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 07/06/2023]
Abstract
Diverse molecular processes regulate the interactions between insect herbivores and their host plants. When plants are exposed to insects, elicitors induce plant defenses, and complex physiological and biochemical processes are triggered, such as the activation of the jasmonic acid (JA) and salicylic acid (SA) pathways, Ca2+ flux, reactive oxygen species (ROS) burst, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation, and other responses. For better adaptation, insects secrete a large number of effectors to interfere with plant defenses on multiple levels. In plants, resistance (R) proteins have evolved to recognize effectors and trigger stronger defense responses. However, only a few effectors recognized by R proteins have been identified until now. Multi-omics approaches for high-throughput elicitor/effector identification and functional characterization have been developed. In this review, we mainly highlight the recent advances in the identification of the elicitors and effectors secreted by insects and their target proteins in plants and discuss their underlying molecular mechanisms, which will provide new inspiration for controlling these insect pests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huiying Wang
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Oil Crops, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Oil Crops Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Shaojie Shi
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Food Crop Germplasm and Genetic Improvement, Key Laboratory of Crop Molecular Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Food Crops, Hubei Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Wei Hua
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Oil Crops, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Oil Crops Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China
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7
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Guo J, Wang H, Guan W, Guo Q, Wang J, Yang J, Peng Y, Shan J, Gao M, Shi S, Shangguan X, Liu B, Jing S, Zhang J, Xu C, Huang J, Rao W, Zheng X, Wu D, Zhou C, Du B, Chen R, Zhu L, Zhu Y, Walling LL, Zhang Q, He G. A tripartite rheostat controls self-regulated host plant resistance to insects. Nature 2023:10.1038/s41586-023-06197-z. [PMID: 37316670 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06197-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2022] [Accepted: 05/11/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Plants deploy receptor-like kinases and nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat receptors to confer host plant resistance (HPR) to herbivores1. These gene-for-gene interactions between insects and their hosts have been proposed for more than 50 years2. However, the molecular and cellular mechanisms that underlie HPR have been elusive, as the identity and sensing mechanisms of insect avirulence effectors have remained unknown. Here we identify an insect salivary protein perceived by a plant immune receptor. The BPH14-interacting salivary protein (BISP) from the brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens Stål) is secreted into rice (Oryza sativa) during feeding. In susceptible plants, BISP targets O. satvia RLCK185 (OsRLCK185; hereafter Os is used to denote O. satvia-related proteins or genes) to suppress basal defences. In resistant plants, the nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat receptor BPH14 directly binds BISP to activate HPR. Constitutive activation of Bph14-mediated immunity is detrimental to plant growth and productivity. The fine-tuning of Bph14-mediated HPR is achieved through direct binding of BISP and BPH14 to the selective autophagy cargo receptor OsNBR1, which delivers BISP to OsATG8 for degradation. Autophagy therefore controls BISP levels. In Bph14 plants, autophagy restores cellular homeostasis by downregulating HPR when feeding by brown planthoppers ceases. We identify an insect saliva protein sensed by a plant immune receptor and discover a three-way interaction system that offers opportunities for developing high-yield, insect-resistant crops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianping Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China
| | - Huiying Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Oil Crops, Oil Crops Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Wei Guan
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China
| | - Qin Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Jing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Jing Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Yaxin Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Junhan Shan
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Mingyang Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Shaojie Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Xinxin Shangguan
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Bingfang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Shengli Jing
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Jing Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Chunxue Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Jin Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Weiwei Rao
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Xiaohong Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Di Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Cong Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Bo Du
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Rongzhi Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Lili Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Yuxian Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China
- Institute for Advanced Studies, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Linda L Walling
- Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Qifa Zhang
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Guangcun He
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China.
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China.
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Gao H, Yuan X, Lin X, Zhang H, Zou J, Liu Z. Reducing Expression of Salivary Protein Genes by Flonicamid Partially Contributed to Its Feeding Inhibition of the Brown Planthopper on Rice. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2023. [PMID: 37027537 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.3c00895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Flonicamid inhibits the feeding of piercing-sucking pests as a selective systemic insecticide. The brown planthopper (BPH), Nilaparvata lugens (Stål), is one of the most serious pests on rice. During feeding, it uses its stylet to collect sap by penetrating the phloem, and at the same time, it delivers saliva into the rice plant. Insect salivary proteins play important roles in feeding and interacting with plants. Whether flonicamid affects the expression of salivary protein genes and then inhibits the feeding of BPH is not clear. Here, from 20 functionally characterized salivary proteins, we screened five salivary proteins (NlShp, NlAnnix5, Nl16, Nl32, and NlSP7) whose gene expressions were significantly inhibited by flonicamid. We performed experimental analysis on two of them (Nl16 and Nl32). RNA interference of Nl32 significantly reduced the survival rate of BPH. Electrical penetration graph (EPG) experiments showed that both flonicamid treatment and knockdown of Nl16 and Nl32 genes significantly reduced the feeding activity of N. lugens in the phloem and also reduced the honeydew excretion and fecundity. These results suggested that the inhibition of flonicamid on the feeding behavior in N. lugens might be partially attributed to its effect on the expression of salivary protein genes. This study provides a new insight into the mechanism of action of flonicamid on insect pests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoli Gao
- Key laboratory of Integrated Management of Crop Diseases and Pests (Ministry of Education), College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Weigang 1, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Xiaowei Yuan
- Key laboratory of Integrated Management of Crop Diseases and Pests (Ministry of Education), College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Weigang 1, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Xumin Lin
- Key laboratory of Integrated Management of Crop Diseases and Pests (Ministry of Education), College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Weigang 1, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Huihui Zhang
- Key laboratory of Integrated Management of Crop Diseases and Pests (Ministry of Education), College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Weigang 1, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Jianzheng Zou
- Key laboratory of Integrated Management of Crop Diseases and Pests (Ministry of Education), College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Weigang 1, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Zewen Liu
- Key laboratory of Integrated Management of Crop Diseases and Pests (Ministry of Education), College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Weigang 1, Nanjing 210095, China
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9
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Planthopper salivary sheath protein LsSP1 contributes to manipulation of rice plant defenses. Nat Commun 2023; 14:737. [PMID: 36759625 PMCID: PMC9911632 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-36403-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Salivary elicitors secreted by herbivorous insects can be perceived by host plants to trigger plant immunity. However, how insects secrete other salivary components to subsequently attenuate the elicitor-induced plant immunity remains poorly understood. Here, we study the small brown planthopper, Laodelphax striatellus salivary sheath protein LsSP1. Using Y2H, BiFC and LUC assays, we show that LsSP1 is secreted into host plants and binds to salivary sheath via mucin-like protein (LsMLP). Rice plants pre-infested with dsLsSP1-treated L. striatellus are less attractive to L. striatellus nymphs than those pre-infected with dsGFP-treated controls. Transgenic rice plants with LsSP1 overexpression rescue the insect feeding defects caused by a deficiency of LsSP1 secretion, consistent with the potential role of LsSP1 in manipulating plant defenses. Our results illustrate the importance of salivary sheath proteins in mediating the interactions between plants and herbivorous insects.
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10
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Gao H, Zou J, Lin X, Zhang H, Yu N, Liu Z. Nilaparvata lugens salivary protein NlG14 triggers defense response in plants. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2022; 73:7477-7487. [PMID: 36056768 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erac354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The brown planthopper (BPH), Nilaparvata lugens (Stål) (Hemiptera: Delphacidae), is a serious insect pest on rice. It uses its stylet to collect sap by penetrating the phloem and at the same time it delivers saliva into the host plant, which can trigger a reaction. The molecular mechanisms by which BPH salivary proteins result in plant responses are poorly understood. In this study, we screened transcriptomic data from different BPH tissues and found a protein specific to the salivary gland, NlG14, that could induce cell death in plants. We determined that NlG14 is uniquely found in the insect family Delphacidae. Detailed examination of N. lugens showed that NlG14 was mainly localized in the A-follicle of the principal gland of the salivary gland, and that it was secreted into rice plants during feeding. Knockdown of NlG14 resulted in significant nymph mortality when BPH was fed on either rice plants or on an artificial diet. Further analysis showed that NlG14 triggered accumulation of reactive oxygen species, cell death, callose deposition, and activation of jasmonic acid signaling pathways in plants. Transient expression of NlG14 in Nicotiana benthamiana decreased insect feeding and suppressed plant pathogen infection. Thus, NlG14, an essential salivary protein of N. lugens, acted as a potential herbivore-associated molecular pattern to enhance plant resistance to both insects and plant pathogens by inducing multiple plant defense responses. Our findings provide new insights into the molecular mechanisms of insect-plant interactions and offer a potential target for pest management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoli Gao
- Key laboratory of Integrated Management of Crop Diseases and Pests (Ministry of Education), College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Weigang 1, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Jianzheng Zou
- Key laboratory of Integrated Management of Crop Diseases and Pests (Ministry of Education), College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Weigang 1, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Xumin Lin
- Key laboratory of Integrated Management of Crop Diseases and Pests (Ministry of Education), College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Weigang 1, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Huihui Zhang
- Key laboratory of Integrated Management of Crop Diseases and Pests (Ministry of Education), College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Weigang 1, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Na Yu
- Key laboratory of Integrated Management of Crop Diseases and Pests (Ministry of Education), College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Weigang 1, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Zewen Liu
- Key laboratory of Integrated Management of Crop Diseases and Pests (Ministry of Education), College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Weigang 1, Nanjing 210095, China
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11
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Premachandran K, Srinivasan TS. In silico modelling and interactive profiling of BPH resistance NBS-LRR proteins with salivary specific proteins of rice planthoppers. GENE REPORTS 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.genrep.2022.101648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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12
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Mostafa S, Wang Y, Zeng W, Jin B. Plant Responses to Herbivory, Wounding, and Infection. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23137031. [PMID: 35806046 PMCID: PMC9266417 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23137031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Revised: 06/15/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Plants have various self-defense mechanisms against biotic attacks, involving both physical and chemical barriers. Physical barriers include spines, trichomes, and cuticle layers, whereas chemical barriers include secondary metabolites (SMs) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Complex interactions between plants and herbivores occur. Plant responses to insect herbivory begin with the perception of physical stimuli, chemical compounds (orally secreted by insects and herbivore-induced VOCs) during feeding. Plant cell membranes then generate ion fluxes that create differences in plasma membrane potential (Vm), which provokes the initiation of signal transduction, the activation of various hormones (e.g., jasmonic acid, salicylic acid, and ethylene), and the release of VOCs and SMs. This review of recent studies of plant–herbivore–infection interactions focuses on early and late plant responses, including physical barriers, signal transduction, SM production as well as epigenetic regulation, and phytohormone responses.
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13
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Yang H, Zhang X, Li H, Ye Y, Li Z, Han X, Hu Y, Zhang C, Jiang Y. Heat Shock 70 kDa Protein Cognate 3 of Brown Planthopper Is Required for Survival and Suppresses Immune Response in Plants. INSECTS 2022; 13:insects13030299. [PMID: 35323596 PMCID: PMC8949815 DOI: 10.3390/insects13030299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2022] [Revised: 03/09/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
Abstract
The brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens) is a monophagous pest of rice (Oryza sativa), which threatens food security around the world. Insect Heat shock proteins 70 kDa (Hsp70s) play a key role in insect growth and development, however, if they also modulate the plant physiological processes is still unclear. In this study, we identified the Heat shock 70 kDa protein cognate 3 (NlHSC70-3) of BPH from compared protein profiles of Nipponbare tissues after BPH infestation via LC/MS. NlHSC70-3 has a predicted signal peptide and displays high transcription levels in the salivary glands, which further supported that it is secreted into plants by BPH during the feeding process. Using RNA interference (RNAi), we showed that NlHSC70-3 is indispensable for the survival of BPH on rice. Most importantly, NlHSC70-3 mediates the plant immune responses including cell death, flg22-induced ROS burst and defense-related gene expression in N. benthamiana. These results demonstrate that NlHSC70-3 may function as an effector manipulating plant physiological processes to facilitate pest survival on rice, which provides a new potential target for future pest control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Houhong Yang
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Plant Resources and Sustainable Use, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650223, China; (H.Y.); (Z.L.); (X.H.); (Y.H.)
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xiaoya Zhang
- Institute of Insect Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; (X.Z.); (H.L.); (Y.Y.)
| | - Hanjing Li
- Institute of Insect Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; (X.Z.); (H.L.); (Y.Y.)
| | - Yuxuan Ye
- Institute of Insect Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; (X.Z.); (H.L.); (Y.Y.)
| | - Zhipeng Li
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Plant Resources and Sustainable Use, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650223, China; (H.Y.); (Z.L.); (X.H.); (Y.H.)
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xiao Han
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Plant Resources and Sustainable Use, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650223, China; (H.Y.); (Z.L.); (X.H.); (Y.H.)
- Center of Economic Botany, Core Botanical Gardens, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla 666303, China
| | - Yanru Hu
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Plant Resources and Sustainable Use, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650223, China; (H.Y.); (Z.L.); (X.H.); (Y.H.)
- Center of Economic Botany, Core Botanical Gardens, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla 666303, China
| | - Chuanxi Zhang
- Institute of Insect Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; (X.Z.); (H.L.); (Y.Y.)
- Institute of Plant Virology, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315000, China
- Correspondence: (C.Z.); (Y.J.)
| | - Yanjuan Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Plant Resources and Sustainable Use, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650223, China; (H.Y.); (Z.L.); (X.H.); (Y.H.)
- Center of Economic Botany, Core Botanical Gardens, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla 666303, China
- Correspondence: (C.Z.); (Y.J.)
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14
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Fu J, Shi Y, Wang L, Tian T, Li J, Gong L, Zheng Z, Jing M, Fang J, Ji R. Planthopper-Secreted Salivary Calmodulin Acts as an Effector for Defense Responses in Rice. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:841378. [PMID: 35295635 PMCID: PMC8918949 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.841378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens, BPH) and small brown planthopper (Laodelphax striatellus, SBPH) are major pests of rice (Oryza sativa) in Asia. These piercing-sucking insects secrete saliva into the host during feeding. Nevertheless, it is largely unknown how planthoppers use salivary effectors to enable continuous feeding on rice. Here, we screened their salivary proteomes and selected eight salivary proteins conserved between SBPH and BPH as candidate effectors. Silencing calmodulin (CaM) impeded BPH and SBPH from penetrating the phloem. Hence, their food intake, survival, and fecundity on rice plants were reduced. By contrast, CaM silencing had a small effect on the survival rate of BPH and SBPH raised on artificial diet. The CaM amino acid sequences were the same for both BPH and SBPH. CaM was highly expressed in their salivary glands and secreted into the rice plants during feeding. Bacterially expressed recombinant CaM protein exhibited calcium-binding activity. In planta expression disclosed that CaM was localized to the plant cytoplasms and nuclei and suppressed plant defenses such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) accumulation and callose deposition. CaM-silenced BPH and SBPH nymphs elicited relatively high levels of H2O2 and callose accumulation in rice plants. The foregoing results reveal that CaM is an effector as it enables the planthopper to reach the phloem by suppressing callose deposition and H2O2 accumulation in rice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianmei Fu
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
| | - Yu Shi
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Lihua Wang
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
| | - Tian Tian
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
| | - Jing Li
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
| | - Lei Gong
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
| | - Zhouting Zheng
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
| | - Maofeng Jing
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jichao Fang
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Regional Modern Agriculture and Environmental Protection, Huaiyin Normal University, Huai’an, China
| | - Rui Ji
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Regional Modern Agriculture and Environmental Protection, Huaiyin Normal University, Huai’an, China
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15
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Uawisetwathana U, Jamboonsri W, Bamrungthai J, Jitthiang P, Nookaew I, Karoonuthaisiri N. Metabolite profiles of brown planthopper-susceptible and resistant rice (Oryza sativa) varieties associated with infestation and mechanical stimuli. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2022; 194:113044. [PMID: 34864385 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2021.113044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2021] [Revised: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 11/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Understanding brown planthopper (BPH) resistance mechanism will expedite selective breeding of better BPH resistant lines of rice (Oryza sativa). Metabolic responses during BPH infestation derived from wound stress imposed by insect feeding, comparing with mechanical piercing will provide an insight into resistance mechanism in rice. Therefore, this study aimed to compare the metabolic responses of needle piercing treatment and BPH feeding treatment in BPH-susceptible (KD) and BPH-resistant (RH) varieties at four different time points (0, 6, 24 and 96 h) using liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS). Phenotypes of RH were not different among the treatments, whereas KD exhibited hopperburn symptom at 96 h post-BPH infestation. Principal component and cluster analyses revealed that metabolite profiles between KD and RH were different in response to both insect and mechanical stimuli. Metabolite profiles of RH under BPH and mechanical treatments at 24 and 96 h were different from the untreated, whereas metabolite profiles of KD after BPH infestation at 24 and 96 h were distinct from needle piercing and no treatment, suggesting that the resistant variety has an ability to adapt and defend both mechanical and insect stimuli. Metabolomics result showed that BPH infestation perturbed purine salvage biosynthesis (e.g., inosine, hypoxanthine) in both varieties, amino acid biosynthesis (e.g., phenylalanine, tryptophan) in KD, while the infestation perturbed lysine metabolism (pipecolic acid) and phenylpropanoid pathway (2-anisic acid) only in RH. BPH and mechanical stimuli perturbed phenylamide only in RH, but not in KD. These findings revealed that different rice varieties utilize different metabolites in response to insect and mechanical stimuli, resulting in different degrees of resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Umaporn Uawisetwathana
- Microarray Research Team, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), Khlong Nueng, Khlong Luang, Pathumthani, 12120, Thailand.
| | - Watchareewan Jamboonsri
- Innovative Plant Biotechnology and Precision Agriculture Research Team, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), Khlong Nueng, Pathum Thani, 12120, Thailand
| | - Jakrin Bamrungthai
- Microarray Research Team, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), Khlong Nueng, Khlong Luang, Pathumthani, 12120, Thailand
| | - Prapatsorn Jitthiang
- Microarray Research Team, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), Khlong Nueng, Khlong Luang, Pathumthani, 12120, Thailand
| | - Intawat Nookaew
- College of Medicine, Department Biomedical Informatics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, United States
| | - Nitsara Karoonuthaisiri
- Microarray Research Team, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), Khlong Nueng, Khlong Luang, Pathumthani, 12120, Thailand; Institute for Global Food Security, Queen's University, Belfast, Biological Sciences Building, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast, BT9 5DL, United Kingdom
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16
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Chen R, Deng Y, Ding Y, Guo J, Qiu J, Wang B, Wang C, Xie Y, Zhang Z, Chen J, Chen L, Chu C, He G, He Z, Huang X, Xing Y, Yang S, Xie D, Liu Y, Li J. Rice functional genomics: decades' efforts and roads ahead. SCIENCE CHINA. LIFE SCIENCES 2022. [PMID: 34881420 DOI: 10.1007/s11427-021-2024-2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/28/2023]
Abstract
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most important crops in the world. Since the completion of rice reference genome sequences, tremendous progress has been achieved in understanding the molecular mechanisms on various rice traits and dissecting the underlying regulatory networks. In this review, we summarize the research progress of rice biology over past decades, including omics, genome-wide association study, phytohormone action, nutrient use, biotic and abiotic responses, photoperiodic flowering, and reproductive development (fertility and sterility). For the roads ahead, cutting-edge technologies such as new genomics methods, high-throughput phenotyping platforms, precise genome-editing tools, environmental microbiome optimization, and synthetic methods will further extend our understanding of unsolved molecular biology questions in rice, and facilitate integrations of the knowledge for agricultural applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongzhi Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China
| | - Yiwen Deng
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Shanghai Institute of Plant Physiology & Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Yanglin Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Jingxin Guo
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Jie Qiu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Sciences, College of Life Sciences, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai, 200234, China
| | - Bing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Innovation Academy for Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Changsheng Wang
- National Center for Gene Research, Center of Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Shanghai Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200233, China
| | - Yongyao Xie
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Zhihua Zhang
- College of Plant Science, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Jiaxin Chen
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Sciences, College of Life Sciences, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai, 200234, China
| | - Letian Chen
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Chengcai Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Innovation Academy for Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Guangcun He
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China
| | - Zuhua He
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Shanghai Institute of Plant Physiology & Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Xuehui Huang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Sciences, College of Life Sciences, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai, 200234, China
| | - Yongzhong Xing
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement and National Centre of Plant Gene Research, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Shuhua Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Daoxin Xie
- MOE Laboratory of Bioinformatics, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China.
| | - Yaoguang Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China.
| | - Jiayang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Innovation Academy for Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.
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17
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Rice functional genomics: decades' efforts and roads ahead. SCIENCE CHINA. LIFE SCIENCES 2021; 65:33-92. [PMID: 34881420 DOI: 10.1007/s11427-021-2024-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most important crops in the world. Since the completion of rice reference genome sequences, tremendous progress has been achieved in understanding the molecular mechanisms on various rice traits and dissecting the underlying regulatory networks. In this review, we summarize the research progress of rice biology over past decades, including omics, genome-wide association study, phytohormone action, nutrient use, biotic and abiotic responses, photoperiodic flowering, and reproductive development (fertility and sterility). For the roads ahead, cutting-edge technologies such as new genomics methods, high-throughput phenotyping platforms, precise genome-editing tools, environmental microbiome optimization, and synthetic methods will further extend our understanding of unsolved molecular biology questions in rice, and facilitate integrations of the knowledge for agricultural applications.
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18
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Shi S, Wang H, Nie L, Tan D, Zhou C, Zhang Q, Li Y, Du B, Guo J, Huang J, Wu D, Zheng X, Guan W, Shan J, Zhu L, Chen R, Xue L, Walling LL, He G. Bph30 confers resistance to brown planthopper by fortifying sclerenchyma in rice leaf sheaths. MOLECULAR PLANT 2021; 14:1714-1732. [PMID: 34246801 DOI: 10.1016/j.molp.2021.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 07/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Phloem-feeding insects cause massive losses in agriculture and horticulture. Host plant resistance to phloem-feeding insects is often mediated by changes in phloem composition, which deter insect settling and feeding and decrease viability. Here, we report that rice plant resistance to the phloem-feeding brown planthopper (BPH) is associated with fortification of the sclerenchyma tissue, which is located just beneath the epidermis and a cell layer or two away from the vascular bundle in the rice leaf sheath. We found that BPHs prefer to feed on the smooth and soft region on the surface of rice leaf sheaths called the long-cell block. We identified Bph30 as a rice BPH resistance gene that prevents BPH stylets from reaching the phloem due to the fortified sclerenchyma. Bph30 is strongly expressed in sclerenchyma cells and enhances cellulose and hemicellulose synthesis, making the cell walls stiffer and sclerenchyma thicker. The structurally fortified sclerenchyma is a formidable barrier preventing BPH stylets from penetrating the leaf sheath tissues and arriving at the phloem to feed. Bph30 belongs to a novel gene family, encoding a protein with two leucine-rich domains. Another member of the family, Bph40, also conferred resistance to BPH. Collectively, the fortified sclerenchyma-mediated resistance mechanism revealed in this study expands our understanding of plant-insect interactions and opens a new path for controlling planthoppers in rice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaojie Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Huiying Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Lingyun Nie
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Di Tan
- The Institute of Technological Science, School of Power and Mechanical Engineering, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Cong Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Qian Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Yi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Bo Du
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Jianping Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Jin Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Di Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Xiaohong Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Wei Guan
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Junhan Shan
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Lili Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Rongzhi Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Longjian Xue
- The Institute of Technological Science, School of Power and Mechanical Engineering, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Linda L Walling
- Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of CaliforniaA, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Guangcun He
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China.
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19
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Ji R, Fu J, Shi Y, Li J, Jing M, Wang L, Yang S, Tian T, Wang L, Ju J, Guo H, Liu B, Dou D, Hoffmann AA, Zhu-Salzman K, Fang J. Vitellogenin from planthopper oral secretion acts as a novel effector to impair plant defenses. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2021; 232:802-817. [PMID: 34260062 DOI: 10.1111/nph.17620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 07/08/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Vitellogenin (Vg) is a well-known nutritious protein involved in reproduction in nearly all oviparous animals, including insects. Recently, Vg has been detected in saliva proteomes of several piercing-sucking herbivorous arthropods, including the small brown planthopper (Laodelphax striatellus, SBPH). Its function, however, remains unexplored. We investigated the molecular mechanism underlying SBPH orally secreted Vg-mediated manipulation of plant-insect interaction by RNA interference, phytohormone and H2 O2 profiling, protein-protein interaction studies and herbivore bioassays. A C-terminal polypeptide of Vg (VgC) in SBPH, when secreted into rice plants, acted as a novel effector to attenuate host rice defenses, which in turn improved insect feeding performance. Silencing Vg reduced insect feeding and survival on rice. Vg-silenced SBPH nymphs consistently elicited higher H2 O2 production, a well-established defense mechanism in rice, whereas expression of VgC in planta significantly hindered hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) accumulation and promoted insect performance. VgC interacted directly with the rice transcription factor OsWRKY71, a protein which is involved in induction of H2 O2 accumulation and plant resistance to SBPH. These findings indicate a novel effector function of Vg: when secreted into host rice plants, this protein effectively weakened H2 O2 -mediated plant defense through its association with a plant immunity regulator.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Ji
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Jianmei Fu
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Yu Shi
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Jing Li
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Maofeng Jing
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Lu Wang
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210014, China
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Shiying Yang
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210014, China
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Tian Tian
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210014, China
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Lihua Wang
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210014, China
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Jiafei Ju
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Huifang Guo
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Bin Liu
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of New Technology in Rice Breeding, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Daolong Dou
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Ary A Hoffmann
- School of BioSciences, Bio21 Institute, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Keyan Zhu-Salzman
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Jichao Fang
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210014, China
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Huang HJ, Yan XT, Wei ZY, Wang YZ, Chen JP, Li JM, Sun ZT, Zhang CX. Identification of Riptortus pedestris Salivary Proteins and Their Roles in Inducing Plant Defenses. BIOLOGY 2021; 10:biology10080753. [PMID: 34439985 PMCID: PMC8389542 DOI: 10.3390/biology10080753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Revised: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Simple Summary The bean bug, Riptortus pedestris (Fabricius) is a notorious pest of soybean crops in Asia. During the feeding process, the bug secretes a mixture of salivary components, which play critical roles in the insect–plant interactions. In the present study, a total of 136 salivary proteins were identified by transcriptomic and proteomic approaches. Among them, five proteins (RpSP10.3, RpSP13.4, RpSP13.8, RpSP17.8, and RpSP10.2) were capable of inducing cell death, reactive oxygen species (ROS) burst, and hormone signal changes, indicating the potential roles of these proteins in eliciting plant defenses. Our results provide a good resource for future functional studies of bug salivary effectors and might be useful in pest management. Abstract The bean bug, Riptortus pedestris (Fabricius), is one of the most important soybean pests. It damages soybean leaves and pods with its piercing-sucking mouthparts, causing staygreen-like syndromes in the infested crops. During the feeding process, R. pedestris secretes a mixture of salivary proteins, which play critical roles in the insect–plant interactions and may be responsible for staygreen-like syndromes. The present study aimed to identify the major salivary proteins in R. pedestris saliva by transcriptomic and proteomic approaches, and to screen the proteins that potentially induced plant defense responses. Altogether, 136 salivary proteins were identified, and a majority of them were involved in hydrolase and binding. Additionally, R. pedestris saliva contained abundant bug-specific proteins with unknown function. Transient expression of salivary proteins in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves identified that RpSP10.3, RpSP13.4, RpSP13.8, RpSP17.8, and RpSP10.2 were capable of inducing cell death, reactive oxygen species (ROS) burst, and hormone signal changes, indicating the potential roles of these proteins in eliciting plant defenses. Our results will shed more light on the molecular mechanisms underlying the plant–insect interactions and are useful for pest management.
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Tian T, Ji R, Fu J, Li J, Wang L, Zhang H, Yang S, Ye W, Fang J, Zhu-Salzman K. A salivary calcium-binding protein from Laodelphax striatellus acts as an effector that suppresses defense in rice. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2021; 77:2272-2281. [PMID: 33421243 DOI: 10.1002/ps.6252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2020] [Revised: 12/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Calcium (Ca2+ )-binding proteins in the saliva of herbivorous insects function as effectors to attenuate host plant defenses and thus improve insect feeding performance. Silencing these genes via transgenic plant-mediated RNAi is thus a promising pest control strategy. However, their sequences and functions in the small brown planthopper Laodelphax striatellus (SBPH) remain to be investigated. RESULTS We identified a putative EF-hand Ca2+ -binding protein (LsECP1) in SBPH watery saliva. LsECP1 was expressed extremely high in the salivary glands but at a low level during the egg stage. Transient LsECP1 expression in rice cells indicated its cytoplasm and nucleus localization. The bacterially expressed recombinant LsECP1 protein exhibited Ca2+ -binding activity. Rice plants fed by SBPH nymphs with knocked down LsECP1 exhibited higher levels of cytosolic Ca2+ , jasmonic acid (JA), jasmonoyl-isoleucine (JA-Ile) and hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ). Consistently, application of heterogeneously expressed LsECP1 protein suppressed wound-induced JA, JA-Ile and H2 O2 accumulation in rice. Thus, LsECP1 knockdown by dsRNA injection resulted in reduced feeding, fecundity and survival rates of SBPH reared on rice plants. Transgenic rice plants constitutively expressing LsECP1 dsRNA were produced, and plant-mediated LsECP1 knockdown enhanced rice resistance to SBPH. CONCLUSION SBPH LsECP1 acts as an effector to impair host rice defense responses and promotes SBPH performance. This discovery provides a potential gene target for plant-mediated RNAi-based pest management. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tian Tian
- Department of Entomology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
| | - Rui Ji
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
| | - Jianmei Fu
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
| | - Jing Li
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
| | - Lu Wang
- Department of Entomology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
| | - Hao Zhang
- Department of Entomology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
| | - Shiying Yang
- Department of Entomology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
| | - Wenfeng Ye
- Laboratory of Fundamental and Applied Research in Chemical Ecology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Jichao Fang
- Department of Entomology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
| | - Keyan Zhu-Salzman
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
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Fu J, Shi Y, Wang L, Zhang H, Li J, Fang J, Ji R. Planthopper-Secreted Salivary Disulfide Isomerase Activates Immune Responses in Plants. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 11:622513. [PMID: 33537052 PMCID: PMC7848103 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.622513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/28/2020] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
The small brown planthopper (Laodelphax striatellus; SBPH) is a piercing-sucking insect that secretes salivary proteins into its plant host during feeding. However, the mechanisms by which these salivary proteins regulate plant defense responses remain poorly understood. Here, we identified the disulfide isomerase (LsPDI1) in the SBPH salivary proteome. LsPDI1 was highly expressed in the SBPH salivary glands and secreted into rice plants during feeding. Transient in planta LsPDI1 expression in the absence of signal peptide induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) burst, cell death, callose deposition, and jasmonic acid (JA) signaling pathway. Deletion mutant analysis revealed that either the a-b-b' or the b-b'-a' domains in LsPDI1 are required to induce cell death in plants. LsPDI1 and its orthologs were highly conserved among various planthopper species and strongly induced ROS burst and cell death in plants. Transient in Nicotiana benthamiana LsPDI1 expression impaired the performance of Spodoptera frugiperda and Myzus persicae on host plants. Hence, LsPDI1 is an important salivary elicitor that enhances plant resistance to insects by inducing the calcium, ROS, and JA signaling pathways. The findings of this study provide novel insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying plant-insect interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianmei Fu
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
| | - Yu Shi
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Lu Wang
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Hao Zhang
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jing Li
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
| | - Jichao Fang
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
- School of the Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Rui Ji
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
- School of the Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
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