Time-Referenced Effects of an Internal vs. External Focus of Attention on Muscular Activity and Compensatory Variability

Task integration in complex, bimanual sequence learning tasks

Sequence learning and multitasking studies have largely focused on simple motor skills, which cannot be directly transferred to the plethora of complex skills found outside of laboratory conditions. Established theories e.g. for bimanual tasks and task integration thus have to be reassessed in the context of complex motor skills. We hypothesize that under more complex conditions, task integration facilitates motor learning, impedes or suppresses effector-specific learning and can still be observed despite partial secondary task interference. We used the Ξ-apparatus to assess the learning success of six groups in a bimanual dual-task, in which we manipulated the degree of possible integration between the right-hand and the left-hand sequences. We could show that task integration positively influences the learning of these complex, bimanual skills. However, the integration impedes but not fully suppresses effector-specific learning, as we could measure reduced hand-specific learning. Task integration improves learning despite the disruptive effect of partial secondary task interference, but its mitigating effect is only effective to some extent. Overall, the results suggest that previous insights on sequential motor learning and task integration can largely also be applied to complex motor skills.

Focus of Attention in Coach Instructions for Technique Training in Sports: A Scrutinized Review of Review Studies

Literature reports superior performance when focusing one's attention during a movement on environmental effects of that movement (external focus, EF) compared to focusing on the moving body (internal focus, IF). Nevertheless, IF instructions still play an important role in the daily practice of coaches, trainers, and therapists. The current review compiles evidence for focus-of-attention concepts on movement form corrections and technique training. Reviews on the topic and selected additional papers addressing the effect of attentional focus on movement form or on kinetic, kinematic or muscle activity data were included. Both EF and IF instructions affect movement form. The reviews revealed that IF instructions seem to be better applicable to direct movement form changes than EF instructions. In contrast, EF instructions better facilitate optimization within the whole-body coordination, often resulting in better performance outcomes not directly linked to movement pattern changes. Several studies discuss focus-of-attention effects in the context of the optimal feedback control theory expanding on the constrained action hypothesis. In summary, EF and IF instructions both affect form and performance of movements, however, their relative efficacy is situation dependent. The often-purported superiority of EF over IF instructions cannot be generalized to all application contexts.

Intervention for Better Knee Alignment during Jump Landing: Is There an Effect of Internally vs. Externally Focused Instructions?

Externally focused attention is known to induce superior results in the movement outcome, whereas focusing attention on the moving body (internal focus) causes conscious control and constrains action. The study investigated effects on knee trajectory and whole-body movement complexity when addressing knee alignment using externally (EF) vs. internally (IF) focused instructions. Young ski racers, n = 24 (12 male), performed landings with subsequent jumps to submaximal height. Movements were tracked and analyzed during the ground contact phase. Sets of jumps were executed without instruction (CON), followed by EF and IF instructions on knee alignment in a random order. Medial-lateral displacement of the knee in landing quantified task achievement, and whole-body principal component analysis was used to compute movement complexity. Knee alignment instructions led to a significantly lower medial knee displacement compared to CON (p = 0.001, η_p² = 0.35). EF vs. IF did not reach significance. EF, as well as IF instructions increased the prominence of the first movement pattern (p = 0.01, η_p² = 0.22) with a reduction of higher-order patterns (p = 0.002, W = 0.11), suggesting a strategy of freezing degrees of freedom. Both instructions addressing the movement form positively influenced knee displacement during landing, and both led to a freezing strategy, simplifying whole-body coordination.

Skilled swimmers maintain performance stability under changing attentional focus constraints

Focusing attention externally, rather than internally, has generally proved advantageous as it avoids interfering with self-organzing processes. However, some research has suggested that this may not necessarily be the case with highly skilled individuals who by definition possess a greater capacity to either adapt or maintain stability under varied task constraints. This study aimed to address this gap by comparing the performance of skilled athletes under internal and external attentional focus conditions using the swimming dive start as a task vehicle. Using a counterbalanced repeated measures design, skilled swimmers performed dive starts in conditions of differing attentional focus - internal and external attentional focus. Kinetic and kinematic variables were collected and statistical analyses conducted to compare differences between conditions. The results revealed no differences in outcome performance (relative peak power, horizontal velocity, and time to 5 m) between internal and external focus conditions. However, remaining kinematic and kinetic measures revealed that all movement events occurred earlier in the movement sequence, suggesting superior self-organization of movement in the external focus condition. An external focus may be beneficial for the organization of movement control in skilled swimmers, but may not have an immediate impact upon the outcome of the task.

Ein theoretischer Beitrag zu Self-talk in der Sportpsychologie

Zusammenfassung. In diesem theoretischen Artikel zum Thema Self-talk wird zunächst ein kurzer historischer Abriss gegeben, in dem auf verschiedene für das Thema relevante psychologische Theorien eingegangen wird. Darauf aufbauend wird die Unterscheidung von strategischem und organischem Self-talk, die sich in zwei verschiedenen Forschungsbereichen in der sportpsychologischen Literatur widerspiegelt, dargestellt. Im Zusammenhang mit organischem Self-talk als der Forschungsbereich, der die Messung von Self-talk während der sportlichen Aktivität beinhaltet, werden auf Zwei-Prozess-Ansätze basierende Self-talk Klassifikationen vorgestellt. Dabei wird anhand des Zusammenhanges von Self-talk und Emotionen gezeigt, dass sich die Forschung vor allem auf spontanen und zielgerichteten Self-talk als zwei Unterformen des organischen Self-talks konzentriert hat. Hinsichtlich des Forschungsfelds des strategischen Self-talks, welches Self-talk im Rahmen von geplanten Selbstinstruktionen zur Verbesserung der sportlichen Leistung untersucht, wird auf mögliche Wirkmechanismen eingegangen. Zuletzt wird die Relevanz von Self-talk in der angewandten Sportpsychologie aufgezeigt und dabei reflexive Self-talk Interventionen als eine innovative Methode beschrieben.

Can kinematic and kinetic differences between planned and unplanned volleyball block jump-landings be associated with injury risk factors?

INTRODUCTION

Injury prevention programs for athletes are still limited by a lack of understanding of specific risk factors that can influence injuries within different sports. The majority of studies on volleyball have not considered the movement patterns when moving in different directions or in planned and unplanned block jump-landings.

METHODS

This study investigated all planes mechanics between the lead and trail limb when moving in dominant and non-dominant directions, for both planned and unplanned jump-landings in thirteen semi-professional female volleyball players. Ankle, knee and hip joint kinematics, kinetics and joint stiffness were recorded.

RESULTS

Our results showed statistically significant differences between the lead limb and the trail limb in the hip flexion angles, moments and velocity; in the knee flexion angles, moments, stiffness, power and energy absorption and in the ankle dorsiflexion, power and energy absorption, showing a tendency where the lead limb has a higher injury risk than the trail limb. When considering planned versus unplanned situations, there were statistically significant differences in knee flexion angles, moments, power and energy absorption; and hip contact angle, flexion angular velocity and energy absorption, with musculoskeletal adaptations in the planned situations.

DISCUSSION

It appears that the role of the limb, either lead or trail, is more important than the limb dominance when performing directional jump-landings, with the lead limb having a higher implication on possible overuse injuries than the trail limb. Furthermore, planned movements showed a difference in strategy indicating greater implications to possible overuse injuries than in the unplanned situations which may be associated with more conscious thought about the movements.

CONCLUSION

Coaches should consider unilateral coordination training in both landing directions for the lead and trail limb, and should adapt training to replicate the competition environment, using unplanned situations to minimize asymmetries to might reduce injury risks.

A Systematic Review of Attentional Focus Strategies in Weightlifting

The way an athlete focuses their attention when lifting a weight has the potential to influence strength development during training and performance outcomes during competition. The effects of attentional focus strategies during weightlifting tasks was investigated through a systematic review. Major databases (SportDISCUS, PsycINFO, Scopus) were searched using key terms relevant to attentional focus and weightlifting and reference lists of identified articles were also searched. Following screening, 16 articles were retained for analysis. The review showed that researchers have recruited experienced and novice weightlifters of both genders in their studies, although male experienced weightlifters are the most commonly studied demographic. Weightlifting tasks have varied from bench press, biceps curls, squats, and leg extensions with some studies using measures of force production against a force plate. The predominant manipulations have been between internal-associative and external-associative foci. An external attentional focus has shown to be beneficial in terms of movement economy as reflected in a variety of outcome measures. The results are interpreted within the framework provided by the Constrained Action Hypothesis and more generally the advantages of an external attentional focus for motor skill learning. An external focus of attention promotes automatic control of actions, thus preventing the motor system being constrained by conscious cognitive control. Implications for informing training programs for athletes and for advising athletes to maximize performance during competition are discussed.

Optimization of the anterior cruciate ligament injury prevention paradigm: novel feedback techniques to enhance motor learning and reduce injury risk

Primary anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury prevention programs effectively reduce ACL injury risk in the short term. Despite these programs, ACL injury incidence is still high, making it imperative to continue to improve current prevention strategies. A potential limitation of current ACL injury prevention training may be a deficit in the transfer of conscious, optimal movement strategies rehearsed during training sessions to automatic movements required for athletic activities and unanticipated events on the field. Instructional strategies with an internal focus of attention have traditionally been utilized, but may not be optimal for the acquisition of the control of complex motor skills required for sports. Conversely, external-focus instructional strategies may enhance skill acquisition more efficiently and increase the transfer of improved motor skills to sports activities. The current article will present insights gained from the motor-learning domain that may enhance neuromuscular training programs via improved skill development and increased retention and transfer to sports activities, which may reduce ACL injury incidence in the long term.

Verbal-motor attention-focusing instructions influence kinematics and performance on a golf-putting task

The authors examined how varying the content of verbal-motor instructions and requesting an internal versus external focus influenced the kinematics and outcome of a golf putting task. On Day 1, 30 novices performed 120 trials with the instruction to focus attention either on performing a pendulum-like movement (internal) or on the desired ball path (external). After 20 retention trials on Day 2, they performed 20 transfer trials with the opposite instruction. Group differences for retention and a group by block interaction showed that external instruction enhanced movement outcome. Kinematic data indicated that specific instruction content influenced outcomes by eliciting changes in movement execution. Switching from the external to the internal focus instruction resulted in a more pendulum-like movement.

The impact of eye movements and cognitive workload on lateral position variability in driving

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this work was to understand the relationship between eye movements and cognitive workload in maintaining lane position while driving.

BACKGROUND

Recent findings in driving research have found that, paradoxically, increases in cognitive workload decrease lateral position variability. If people drive where they look and drivers look more centrally with increased cognitive workload, then one could explain the decreases in lateral position variability as a result of changes in lateral eye movements. In contrast, it is also possible that cognitive workload brings about these patterns regardless of changes in eye movements.

METHOD

We conducted three experiments involving a fixed-base driving simulator to independently manipulate eye movements and cognitive workload.

RESULTS

Results indicated that eye movements played a modest role in lateral position variability, whereas cognitive workload played a much more substantial role.

CONCLUSIONS

Increases in cognitive workload decrease lane position variability independently from eye movements. These findings are discussed in terms of hierarchical control theory.

APPLICATIONS

These findings could potentially be used to identify periods of high cognitive workload during driving.

External attentional focus enhances movement automatization: a comprehensive test of the constrained action hypothesis

An external focus of attention has been shown to result in superior motor performance compared to an internal focus of attention. This study investigated whether this is due to enhanced levels of movement automatization, as predicted by the constrained action hypothesis (McNevin, Shea, & Wulf, 2003). Thirty healthy participants performed a cyclic one-leg extension-flexion task with both the dominant and non-dominant leg. Focus of attention was manipulated via instructions. The degree of automatization of movement was assessed by measuring dual task costs as well as movement execution parameters (i.e., EMG activity, movement fluency, and movement regularity). Results revealed that an external focus of attention led to significantly better motor performance (i.e., shorter movement duration) than an internal focus. Although dual task costs of the motor task did not differ as a function of attentional focus, cognitive dual task costs were significantly higher when attention was directed internally. An external focus of attention resulted in more fluent and more regular movement execution than an internal focus, whereas no differences were found concerning muscular activity. These results indicate that an external focus of attention results in more automatized movements than an internal focus and, therefore, provide support for the constrained action hypothesis.

Thinking about muscles: the neuromuscular effects of attentional focus on accuracy and fatigue

Although the effects of attention on movement execution are well documented behaviorally, much less research has been done on the neurophysiological changes that underlie attentional focus effects. This study presents two experiments exploring effects of attention during an isometric plantar-flexion task using surface electromyography (sEMG). Participants' attention was directed either externally (towards the force plate they were pushing against) or internally (towards their own leg, specifically the agonist muscle). Experiment 1 tested the effects of attention on accuracy and efficiency of force produced at three target forces (30, 60, and 100% of the maximum voluntary contraction; MVC). An internal focus of attention reduced the accuracy of force being produced and increased cocontraction of the antagonist muscle. Error on a given trial was positively correlated with the magnitude of cocontraction on that trial. Experiment 2 tested the effects of attention on muscular fatigue at 30, 60 and 100%MVC. An internal focus of attention led to less efficient intermuscular coordination, especially early in the contraction. These results suggest that an internal focus of attention disrupts efficient motor control in force production resulting in increased cocontraction, which potentially explains other neuromechanical findings (e.g. reduced functional variability with an internal focus).

Constraint-led changes in internal variability in running

We investigated the effect of a one-time application of elastic constraints on movement-inherent variability during treadmill running. Eleven males ran two 35-min intervals while surface EMG was measured. In one of two 35-min intervals, after 10 min of running without tubes, elastic tubes (between hip and heels) were attached, followed by another 5 min of running without tubes. To assess variability, stride-to-stride iEMG variability was calculated. Significant increases in variability (36 % to 74 %) were observed during tube running, whereas running without tubes after the tube running block showed no significant differences. Results show that elastic tubes affect variability on a muscular level despite the constant environmental conditions and underline the nervous system's adaptability to cope with somehow unpredictable constraints since stride duration was unaltered.