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Micillo L, Grondin S, Mioni G. The effect of modality and order presentation of emotional stimuli on time perception. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2024; 77:1813-1823. [PMID: 37877182 DOI: 10.1177/17470218231211905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2023]
Abstract
Despite human accuracy in perceiving time, many factors can modulate the subjective experience of time. For example, it is widely reported that emotion can expand or shrink our perception of time and that temporal intervals are perceived as longer when marked by auditory stimuli than by visual stimuli. In the present study, we aimed at investigating whether the influence of emotion on time perception can be altered by the order in which emotional stimuli are presented and the sensory modality in which they are presented. Participants were asked to complete a time bisection task in which emotional stimuli were presented either acoustically or visually, and either before or after interval to be estimated. We observed a main effect of modality (longer perceived duration and lower variability in the auditory than in the visual modality) as well as a main effect of emotion (temporal overestimation for negative stimuli compared to neutral). Importantly, the effects of modality and emotion interacted with the order of presentation of the emotional stimuli. In the visual condition, when emotional stimuli were presented after the temporal intervals, participants overestimated time, but no differences between negative and neutral stimuli were observed when emotional stimuli were presented first. In the auditory condition, no significant effect of emotion on perceived duration was found. Results suggest that negative emotions affect our perception of durations acting at the decision-making stage rather than at the pacemaker one. No effect on time perception was observed for emotional auditory stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luigi Micillo
- Dipartimento di Psicologia Generale, Università di Padova, Padova, Italia
| | - Simon Grondin
- École de Psychologie, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Giovanna Mioni
- Dipartimento di Psicologia Generale, Università di Padova, Padova, Italia
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2
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Morin A, Grondin S. Mindfulness and time perception: A systematic integrative review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 162:105657. [PMID: 38583653 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2023] [Revised: 04/02/2024] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024]
Abstract
Several recent studies have explored the relationships between mindfulness and time perception, an area of research that has become increasingly popular in the last 10-15 years. In this article, we present a systematic integrative review of the evidence on this subject. We also integrate the field's findings into a conceptual framework which considers the multifaceted nature of both mindfulness, and time perception research. To identify the relevant literature, we searched the following databases using relevant keywords: PsycINFO; Medline; EBSCO Host Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection; and Web of Science. These searches were last performed on the 4th of May 2022, and additional hand searches were also conducted. To be included, articles had to be in English and contain original data about the potential relationship(s) between mindfulness and time perception. Articles which did not present usable data about the relationship(s) between the variables of interest were excluded. In total, 47 research articles were included in the review (combined sample size of ∼5800 participants). Risks of bias in the selected studies were evaluated using two separate assessment tools designed for this purpose. Through an integrative narrative synthesis, this article reviews how mindfulness may relate to time perception for various reference frames, and for various time perception measures and methods. It also provides new insights by exploring how a wide range of findings can be integrated into a coherent whole, in light of some relevant time perception models and mindfulness theories. Altogether, the reviewed data suggest the existence of complex and multifaceted relationships between mindfulness and time perception, highlighting the importance of considering many factors when planning research or interpreting data in this field. Limitations of the current review include the scarceness of data for certain categories of findings, and the relatively low prevalence of studies with a randomized controlled design in the source literature. This research was partly funded by a grant from the Natural Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada.
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Affiliation(s)
- André Morin
- École de psychologie, Université Laval, Québec, Canada.
| | - Simon Grondin
- École de psychologie, Université Laval, Québec, Canada
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3
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Zhai M, Wu H, Wang Y, Liao Y, Feng W. Sound reduces saccadic chronostasis illusion. Vision Res 2024; 215:108344. [PMID: 38109820 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2023.108344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/07/2023] [Indexed: 12/20/2023]
Abstract
The saccadic chronostasis illusion refers to the duration overestimation of the first visual stimulation after saccadic eye movement, which is also known as "stopped clock illusion." The present study investigated whether saccadic chronostasis would be observed in the auditory modality and whether the saccade-induced time dilation in the visual modality would be reduced by a synchronously presented sound. In each trial, a unisensory visual stimulus, unisensory sound, or bimodal audio-visual stimulus with a duration of 200-800 ms (probe stimulus) was presented at the saccade target location and temporally around the offset of the saccade, followed by a unisensory visual or auditory standard stimulus for a fixed 500 ms. Participants were required to identify which of the two stimuli (probe or standard) presented in the target modality (visual or auditory) was perceived as longer. The results showed that no saccadic chronostasis was observed in the auditory modality, regardless of whether the sound was presented alone or synchronously accompanied by a visual stimulus. Interestingly, the magnitude of the saccadic chronostasis illusion was reduced by the synchronously presented sound. Moreover, the combined effect of the saccade and sound on visual time perception fits well with the standard scalar model, and the weight of the cross-modal effect was higher than that of saccadic visual time dilation. These results suggest that sound dominates vision in time processing during saccades and linearly modulates saccadic chronostasis, which follows the Scalar Expectancy Theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengdie Zhai
- Department of Psychology, School of Education, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China
| | - Hongxiao Wu
- Student Affairs Office, Changzhou Liu Guojun Vocational Technology College, Changzhou, Jiangsu 213100, China
| | - Yajie Wang
- School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
| | - Yu Liao
- Department of Psychology, School of Education, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China
| | - Wenfeng Feng
- Department of Psychology, School of Education, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China; Research Center for Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China.
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Contemori G, Meneghini G, Battaglini L. An Illusory Motion in Stationary Stimuli Alters Their Perceived Duration. Vision (Basel) 2023; 7:61. [PMID: 37756135 PMCID: PMC10537486 DOI: 10.3390/vision7030061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Revised: 09/07/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite having equal duration, stimuli in physical motion are perceived to last longer than static ones. Here, we investigate whether illusory motion stimuli produce a time-dilation effect similar to physical motion. Participants performed a duration discrimination task that compared the perceived duration of static stimuli with and without illusory motion to a reference stimulus. In the first experiment, we observed a 4% increase in the number of "longer" responses for the illusory motion images than static stimuli with equal duration. The time-dilation effect, quantified as a shift in the Point of Subjective Equality (PSE), was approximately 55 ms for a 2-second stimulus. Although small, the effect was replicated in a second experiment in which the total number of standard-duration repetitions was reduced from 73 to 19. In the third experiment, we found a positive linear trend between the strength of the illusory motion and the magnitude of the time-dilation effect. These results demonstrate that, similar to physical motion stimuli, illusory motion stimuli are perceived to last longer than static stimuli. Furthermore, the strength of the illusion influences the extent of the lengthening of perceived duration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulio Contemori
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Via Venezia 8, 35131 Padova, Italy;
| | - Giulia Meneghini
- Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy;
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Luca Battaglini
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Via Venezia 8, 35131 Padova, Italy;
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Villalonga MB, Sekuler R. Keep your finger on the pulse: Better rate perception and gap detection with vibrotactile compared to visual stimuli. Atten Percept Psychophys 2023; 85:2004-2017. [PMID: 37587355 PMCID: PMC10545646 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-023-02736-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 08/18/2023]
Abstract
Important characteristics of the environment can be represented in the temporal pattern of sensory stimulation. In two experiments, we compared accuracy of temporal processing by different modalities. Experiment 1 examined binary categorization of rate for visual (V) or vibrotactile (T) stimulus pulses presented at either 4 or 6 Hz. Inter-pulse intervals were either constant or variable, perturbed by random Gaussian variates. Subjects categorized the rate of T pulse sequences more accurately than V sequences. In V conditions only, subjects disproportionately tended to mis-categorize 4-Hz pulse rates, for all but the most variable sequences. In Experiment 2, we compared gap detection thresholds across modalities, using the same V and T pulses from Experiment 1, as well as with bimodal (VT) pulses. Visual gap detection thresholds were larger (3[Formula: see text]) than tactile thresholds. Additionally, performance with VT stimuli seemed to be nearly completely dominated by their T components. Together, these results suggest (i) that vibrotactile temporal acuity surpasses visual temporal acuity, and (ii) that vibrotactile stimulation has considerable, untapped potential to convey temporal information like that needed for eyes-free alerting signals.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Robert Sekuler
- Department of Psychology, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA, USA
- Program in Neuroscience, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA, USA
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Battistin T, Mioni G, Schoch V, Bisiacchi PS. Comparison of temporal judgments in sighted and visually impaired children. RESEARCH IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES 2019; 95:103499. [PMID: 31586849 DOI: 10.1016/j.ridd.2019.103499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2018] [Revised: 09/12/2019] [Accepted: 09/14/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
AIM We studied visually impaired and blind children to investigate the effects of visual damage on time perception. METHODS Sixty-three children (11 blind, 16 visually impaired, 20 sighted and 16 sighted but blindfolded) performed a temporal bisection task, which consisted of judging different temporal intervals presented in the auditory modality. RESULTS The visually impaired children showed lower constant error than sighted children but higher variability (Weber ratio). The blindfolded children had a temporal estimation comparable to the clinical groups and time sensitivity comparable to the controls. CONCLUSION These findings are interpreted in the light of inter-modality interference, assuming that the coexistence of both sensory modalities, present only in controls, leads to a trade-off between the two senses with an indirect contribution of sight, which does not happen either in the clinical groups or in the blindfolded children, despite the single sensory task.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Giovanna Mioni
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Italy
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Abstract
In this 3-experiment study, the Weber fractions in the 300-ms and 900-ms duration ranges are obtained with 9 types of empty intervals resulting from the combinations of three types of signals for marking the beginning and end of the signals: auditory (A), visual (V), or tactile (T). There were three types of intramodal intervals (AA, TT, and VV) and 6 types of intermodal intervals (AT, AV, VA, VT, TA, and TV). The second marker is always the same during Experiments 1 (A), 2 (V), and 3 (T). With an uncertainty strategy where the first marker is 1 of 2 sensory signals being presented randomly from trial to trial, the study provides direct comparisons of the perceived length of the different marker-type intervals. The results reveal that the Weber fraction is nearly constant in the three types of intramodal intervals, but is clearly lower at 900 ms than at 300 ms in intermodal conditions. In several cases, the intramodal intervals are perceived as shorter than intermodal intervals, which is interpreted as an effect of the efficiency in detecting the second marker of an intramodal interval. There were no significant differences between the TA and VA intervals (Experiment 1) and between the AV and TV intervals (Experiment 2), but in Experiment 3, the AT intervals were perceived as longer than the VT intervals. The results are interpreted in terms of the generalized form of Weber's law, using the properties of the signals for explaining the additional nontemporal noise observed in the intermodal conditions.
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8
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Modulating Subjective Time Perception with Transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS). JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE ENHANCEMENT 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s41465-019-00128-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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9
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Kang H, Lancelin D, Pressnitzer D. Memory for Random Time Patterns in Audition, Touch, and Vision. Neuroscience 2018; 389:118-132. [PMID: 29577997 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2018.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2017] [Revised: 03/09/2018] [Accepted: 03/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Perception deals with temporal sequences of events, like series of phonemes for audition, dynamic changes in pressure for touch textures, or moving objects for vision. Memory processes are thus needed to make sense of the temporal patterning of sensory information. Recently, we have shown that auditory temporal patterns could be learned rapidly and incidentally with repeated exposure [Kang et al., 2017]. Here, we tested whether rapid incidental learning of temporal patterns was specific to audition, or if it was a more general property of sensory systems. We used a same behavioral task in three modalities: audition, touch, and vision, for stimuli having identical temporal statistics. Participants were presented with sequences of acoustic pulses for audition, motion pulses to the fingertips for touch, or light pulses for vision. Pulses were randomly and irregularly spaced, with all inter-pulse intervals in the sub-second range and all constrained to be longer than the temporal acuity in any modality. This led to pulse sequences with an average inter-pulse interval of 166 ms, a minimum inter-pulse interval of 60 ms, and a total duration of 1.2 s. Results showed that, if a random temporal pattern re-occurred at random times during an experimental block, it was rapidly learned, whatever the sensory modality. Moreover, patterns first learned in the auditory modality displayed transfer of learning to either touch or vision. This suggests that sensory systems may be exquisitely tuned to incidentally learn re-occurring temporal patterns, with possible cross-talk between the senses.
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Affiliation(s)
- HiJee Kang
- Laboratoire des Systèmes Perceptifs, Département d'études cognitives, École Normale Supérieure, PSL Research University, CNRS, 29 rue d'Ulm, 75005 Paris, France.
| | - Denis Lancelin
- Laboratoire des Systèmes Perceptifs, Département d'études cognitives, École Normale Supérieure, PSL Research University, CNRS, 29 rue d'Ulm, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Daniel Pressnitzer
- Laboratoire des Systèmes Perceptifs, Département d'études cognitives, École Normale Supérieure, PSL Research University, CNRS, 29 rue d'Ulm, 75005 Paris, France.
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10
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Mioni G, Grondin S, Mapelli D, Stablum F. A tRNS investigation of the sensory representation of time. Sci Rep 2018; 8:10364. [PMID: 29985432 PMCID: PMC6037735 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-28673-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2018] [Accepted: 06/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The understanding of the mechanisms underlying the representation of temporal intervals in the range of milliseconds/seconds remains a complex issue. Different brain areas have been identified as critical in temporal processing. The activation of specific areas is depending on temporal range involved in the tasks and on the modalities used for marking time. Here, for the first time, transcranial random noise stimulation (tRNS) was applied over the right posterior parietal (P4) and right frontal (F4) cortex to investigate their role in intra- and intermodal temporal processing involving brief temporal intervals (<1 sec). Eighty University students performed a time bisection task involving standard durations lasting 300 ms (short) and 900 ms (long). Each empty interval to be judged was marked by two successive brief visual (V) or auditory (A) signals defining four conditions: VV, VA, AV or AA. Participants were assigned to one of these four conditions. Half of the participants received tRNS over P4 and half over F4. No effect of stimulation was observed on temporal variability (Weber ratio). However, participants that were stimulated over P4 overestimated temporal intervals in the random condition compared to the sham condition. In addition to showing an effect of tRNS on perceived duration rather than on temporal variability, the results of the present study confirm that the right posterior parietal cortex is involved in the processing of time intervals and extend this finding to several sensory modality conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Mioni
- Dipartimento di Psicologia Generale, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy.
| | - S Grondin
- École de Psychologie, Université Laval, Québec, Canada
| | - D Mapelli
- Dipartimento di Psicologia Generale, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - F Stablum
- Dipartimento di Psicologia Generale, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy
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11
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Stimulus duration has little effect on auditory, visual and audiovisual temporal order judgement. Exp Brain Res 2018; 236:1273-1282. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-018-5218-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2017] [Accepted: 02/22/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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12
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Mitani K, Kashino M. Auditory Feedback Assists Post hoc Error Correction of Temporal Reproduction, and Perception of Self-Produced Time Intervals in Subsecond Range. Front Psychol 2018; 8:2325. [PMID: 29403407 PMCID: PMC5780434 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2017] [Accepted: 12/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined whether auditory feedback assists the post hoc error correction of temporal reproduction, and the perception of self-produced time intervals in the subsecond and suprasecond ranges. Here, we employed a temporal reproduction task with a single motor response at a point in time with and without auditory feedback. This task limits participants to reducing errors by employing auditory feedback in a post hoc manner. Additionally, the participants were asked to judge the self-produced timing in this task. The results showed that, in the presence of auditory feedback, the participants exhibited smaller variability and bias in terms of temporal reproduction and the perception of self-produced time intervals in the subsecond range but not in the suprasecond range. Furthermore, in the presence of auditory feedback, the positive serial dependency of temporal reproduction, which is the tendency of reproduced intervals to be similar to those in adjacent trials, was reduced in the subsecond range but not in the suprasecond range. These results suggest that auditory feedback assists the post hoc error correction of temporal reproduction, and the perception of self-produced time intervals in the subsecond range.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keita Mitani
- Department of Information Processing, Interdisciplinary Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, Japan.,Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Makio Kashino
- Department of Information Processing, Interdisciplinary Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, Japan.,NTT Communication Science Laboratories, Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation, Atsugi, Japan
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13
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The role of primary auditory and visual cortices in temporal processing: A tDCS approach. Behav Brain Res 2016; 313:151-157. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2016.07.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2016] [Revised: 07/07/2016] [Accepted: 07/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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14
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Retsa C, Naish P, Bekinschtein T, Bak TH. Temporal judgments in multi-sensory space. Neuropsychologia 2016; 88:101-112. [PMID: 26898372 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2015] [Revised: 02/08/2016] [Accepted: 02/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
To successfully interact with the environment requires a combination of stimulus recognition as well as localization in both space and time, with information moreover coming from multiple senses. Several studies have shown that auditory stimuli last subjectively longer than visual ones of equal duration. Recently, it has also been suggested that stimulus position affects duration perception. The present study investigated how lateral spatial presentation influences sub-second visual and auditory duration judgments. Five experiments were conducted using the duration discrimination paradigm, wherein two stimuli are presented sequentially and participants are asked to judge whether the second stimulus (comparison) is shorter or longer in duration than the first (standard). The number of stimulus positions and the way in which different modality trials were presented (mixed or blocked) varied. Additionally, comparisons were made either within or across modalities. No stable effect of location itself was found. However, in mixed modality experiments there was a clear over-estimation of duration in visual trials when the location of the comparison was different from the standard. This effect was reversed in the same location trials. Auditory judgments were unaffected by location manipulations. Based on these results, we propose the existence of an error-mechanism, according to which a specific duration is added in order to compensate for the loss of duration perception caused by spatial attention shifts between different locations. This mechanism is revealed in spatial and modality-mixed circumstances wherein its over-activation results in a systematic temporal bias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chrysa Retsa
- Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, UK; The Laboratory for Investigative Neurophysiology (The LINE), Department of Clinical Neurosciences and Department of Radiology, University Hospital Center and University of Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Peter Naish
- The Sackler Centre for Consiousness Science University of Sussex, UK
| | | | - Thomas H Bak
- Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, UK
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Hartcher-O'Brien J, Brighouse C, Levitan CA. A single mechanism account of duration and rate processing via the pacemaker-accumulator and beat frequency models. Curr Opin Behav Sci 2016; 8:268-275. [PMID: 27294175 DOI: 10.1016/j.cobeha.2016.02.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Time is an essential dimension of our environment that allows us to extract meaningful information about speed of movement, speech, motor actions and fine motor control. Traditionally, models of time have tried to quantify how the brain might process the duration of an event. The most commonly cited are the pacemaker-accumulator model and the beat frequency model of interval timing, which explain how duration is perceived, represented and encoded. Here we posit such models as providing a powerful tool for simultaneously extracting, representing and encoding stimulus rate information. That is, any model that can process duration has all the information needed to code stimulus rate. We explore different processing strategies which would enable rate to be read off from both the pacemaker-accumulator and beat frequency model of interval timing. Finally we explore open questions that, when answered, will shed light upon potential mechanisms for duration and rate estimation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Carolyn Brighouse
- Department of Philosophy, Occidental College, 1600 Campus Road, Los Angeles, CA 90041, USA
| | - Carmel A Levitan
- Department of Cognitive Science, Occidental College, 1600 Campus Road, Los Angeles, CA 90041, USA
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