Mathematics Anxiety, Working Memory, and Mathematics Performance in Secondary-School Children

Role of executive functions in the relations of state- and trait-math anxiety with math performance

The detrimental effect of math anxiety on math performance is thought to be mediated by executive functions. Previous studies have primarily focused on trait-math anxiety rather than state-math anxiety and have typically examined a single executive function rather than comprehensively evaluating all of them. Here, we used a structural equation modeling approach to concurrently determine the potential mediating roles of different executive functions (i.e., inhibition, switching, and updating) in the relationships between both state- and trait-math anxiety and math performance. A battery of computer-based tasks and questionnaires were administered to 205 university students. Two relevant results emerged. First, confirmatory factor analysis suggests that math anxiety encompassed both trait and state dimensions and, although they share substantial variance, trait-math anxiety predicted math performance over and above state-math anxiety. Second, working memory updating was the only executive function that mediated the relationship between math anxiety and math performance; neither inhibition nor switching played mediating roles. This calls into question whether some general proposals about the relationship between anxiety and executive functions can be extended specifically to math anxiety. We also raise the possibility that working memory updating or general cognitive difficulties might precede individual differences in math anxiety.

Emotions and mathematics: anxiety profiles and their influence on arithmetic performance in university students

Mathematics anxiety (MA), general and test anxieties affect mathematics performance. However, little is known about how different anxiety profiles (i.e. individual configurations of anxiety forms) influence the relationship between MA and mathematics performance in university students. To the best of our knowledge, studies that have categorized participants based on their anxiety profiles and investigated how such groups differ in mathematics performance and other individual characteristics have all been conducted only with children and adolescents. Using latent profile analysis, we identified five different anxiety profiles in UK university students (N = 328) based on their MA, test anxiety (TA) and trait general anxiety levels (GA). Beyond extreme profiles (high or low levels in all forms of anxiety), we found groups characterized by more specific anxiety forms (MA profile, TA profile and high anxiety with low MA learning profile). These profiles were differentially related to arithmetic performance (but not the performance in a non-mathematics task), and individual factors (e.g. self-concept and self-efficacy). Results can inform the design of interventions tailored to individuals' unique anxiety profiles and highlight the necessity to further study the underpinning mechanisms that drive the MA developmental trajectory from childhood to adulthood.

Assessment of math anxiety as a potential tool to identify students at risk of poor acquisition of new math skills: longitudinal study of grade 9 Italian students

Introduction

Numerous international educational institutions have sounded the alarm about the gradual increase in the number of students failing to achieve a sufficient level of proficiency in mathematical abilities. Thus, the growing interest in identifying possible solutions and factors interfering with learning seems justified. In recent years, special attention has accrued to the possible role played by emotional factors.

Methods

In the present investigation, students in the first grade of a technical vocational secondary school are followed to assess the influence of math anxiety (MA) on the development of skill acquisition in calculus. A math skills assessment test is administered on two occasions, at the beginning and end of the school year.

Results

Results highlighted that the score on the anxiety scale, administered at the beginning of the year, negatively correlated with the score obtained on the mathematics test, administered at the end of the school year: the higher the level of anxiety, the worse the performance. Furthermore, the score obtained in the second administration makes it possible to divide the students tested into two groups: students who improved their performance and students who did not benefit at all from repeating the test. In these two groups, an analysis of the relationships between the outcome of the end-of-year mathematics test and the level of MA at the beginning of the year showed that MA correlates negatively with performance only in students who will fail to acquire new expertise in mathematics over the course of the school year.

Discussion

The results suggest that MA may interfere with the smooth development of math skills. Assessing the level of MA at the beginning of the school year could prove to be a useful tool in identifying which and how many students are at risk of failing to achieve the skills expected from the usual course of instruction. A consideration of anxiety as one of the variables at play in the genesis of learning difficulties may prompt educators to modify teaching methodology and strategies by increasing focus on the impact of the emotional dimension on learning.

Cognitive processing features of elementary school children with mathematical anxiety: Attentional control theory-based explanation

A growing body of research suggests that mathematical anxiety (MA) seriously affects an individual's math achievement. However, few studies have focused on the cognitive mechanisms of MA in elementary school children. Based on attention control theory (ACT), this research aimed to explore the cognitive mechanism of MA in elementary school children using two studies. In Study 1, the dual-task paradigm of number memory and computation span was used to investigate the difference in processing efficiency between the high-mathematical anxiety (HMA) group and the low-mathematical anxiety (LMA) group. In total, 59 students with HMA and 54 students with LMA participated in Study 1. The results showed that students with HMA had lower processing efficiency in dealing with high-load math tasks. To further investigate the underlying mechanism of low processing efficiency for students with HMA, Study 2 explored the attention bias toward math-related stimuli of students with HMA using the Posner paradigm. In total, 48 students with HMA and 49 students with LMA participated in Study 2. The results showed that math trials put children with HMA in a state of heightened vigilance in general, which might be related to the low processing efficiency in dealing with high-load math tasks. These findings support the ACT and further reveal the mechanism of MA in elementary school children from a cognitive perspective.

Executive functions, math anxiety and math performance in middle school students

Previous studies mainly investigated working memory (WM) and math anxiety (MA) leaving almost unexplored other aspects of executive functions (EFs) in middle school period. Filling the gap in the literature, the aims of this study were: (1) to better examine the relationship between MA and math performance, (2) to better examine the relationship between EFs and math performance and (3) to investigate the interplay between EFs and MA on math performances. This study confirmed a significant and negative relationship between MA and math performance, indicates a significant and positive relationship between visuospatial WM and math performance, shifting and math performance and highlight a scarcely investigated indirect influence of MA through the measure of shifting on math performance. Our findings shed further light on the mediating role of EFs between MA and math performance and underline some future perspectives.

Mathematics and Numerosity but Not Visuo-Spatial Working Memory Correlate with Mathematical Anxiety in Adults

Many individuals, when faced with mathematical tasks or situations requiring arithmetic skills, experience exaggerated levels of anxiety. Mathematical anxiety (MA), in addition to causing discomfort, can lead to avoidance behaviors and then to underachievement. However, the factors inducing MA and how MA deploys its detrimental effects are still largely debated. There is evidence suggesting that MA affects working memory capacity by further diminishing its limited processing resources. An alternative account postulates that MA originates from a coarse early numerical cognition capacity, the perception of numerosity. In the current study, we measured MA, math abilities, numerosity perception and visuo-spatial working memory (VSWM) in a sample of neurotypical adults. Correlational analyses confirmed previous studies showing that high MA was associated with lower math scores and worse numerosity estimation precision. Conversely, MA turned out to be unrelated to VSWM capacities. Finally, partial correlations revealed that MA fully accounted for the relationship between numerosity estimation precision and math abilities, suggesting a key role for MA as a mediating factor between these two domains.

Patterns of Attention and Anxiety in Predicting Arithmetic Fluency among School-Aged Children

Although the interaction between anxiety and attention is considered crucial for learning and performance in mathematics, few studies have examined these cognitive and affective predictors in a single framework or explored the role of sustained attention in promoting children’s arithmetic performance, using traditional linear analyses and latent profile analysis (LPA). In this paper, state anxieties (in a math test and in an attention test situation), general anxiety traits, sustained attention (performance-based test and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) self-ratings) and math achievement of 403 fourth and fifth graders (55.8% girls) were assessed. A negative correlation between state anxiety prior to the math test and arithmetic achievements was identified, even when controlling for other non-math related state anxieties and general anxiety. Sustained attention was a strong predictor of arithmetic achievement and functioned as a moderator in the anxiety-performance link. LPA identified six distinct profiles that revealed a complex relationship with arithmetic fluency. The weakest achievement was found for a specific math anxiety subgroup. The findings highlight the important role of the interaction of anxiety and sustained attention in children’s ability to perform math and enable new conclusions about the specific nature of math anxiety. Implications for future research are discussed.

The Role of Opportunity to Learn on Student Mathematics Anxiety, Problem-Solving Performance, and Mathematics Performance

This study examined the effects of opportunity to learn (OTL) or the content coverage in mathematics on student mathematics anxiety, problem-solving performance, and mathematics performance. The pathways examining the influences of OTL on student problem-solving performance and mathematics performance via mathematics anxiety were also tested. A sample of 1,676 students from Shanghai-China, and a sample of 1,511 students from the United States who participated in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2012 were used for the analyses. The results from multilevel models and path models supported our hypotheses that OTL not only showed significant direct effects on student mathematics anxiety, problem-solving performance, and mathematics performance, but also presented indirect effects on student problem-solving performance and mathematics performance via mathematics anxiety in both Shanghai-China and United States, controlling for student gender, grade, and socioeconomic status. The practical implications of the current results were also discussed.

Studying the relationship between anxiety and school achievement: evidence from PISA data

Using the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2015 data for Italy, this paper offers a complete overview of the relationship between test anxiety and school performance by studying how anxiety affects the performance of students along the overall conditional distribution of mathematics, literature and science scores. We aim to indirectly measure whether higher goals increase test anxiety, starting from the hypothesis that high-skilled students generally set themselves high goals. We use an M-quantile regression approach that allows us to take into account the hierarchical structure and sampling weights of the PISA data. There is evidence of a negative and statistically significant relationship between test anxiety and school performance. The size of the estimated association is greater at the upper tail of the distribution of each score than at the lower tail. Therefore, our results suggest that high-performing students are more affected than low-performing students by emotional reactions to tests and school-work anxiety.

The interplay between math anxiety and working memory on math performance: a longitudinal study

Mathematical skills are essential to mastering everyday activities, making professional choices, and exercising citizenship in a numerate society. There is extensive evidence of the relationship between math anxiety (MA) and working memory (WM) influencing math attainment. Studies have mainly considered adult samples, however, leaving primary school children almost unexplored. This study is a first attempt to examine how the complex interplay between MA and WM affects math achievement from a developmental perspective. A total of 148 third graders were assessed with WM, general anxiety (GA), MA, and math tasks. Anxiety and WM were assessed at the beginning of the school year when children started attending grade 3, while math achievement was tested twice at the start of grades 3 and 4. The findings seem to confirm that GA has both a direct and an indirect effect (mediated by WM) on math performance in third and fourth graders. MA has a direct effect on math performance in grade 4, but only an indirect effect in grade 3, suggesting MA has a developmental trajectory, becoming stronger over time. The implications in the educational setting are discussed, pointing to the importance of a combined intervention on MA and WM.

Developmental relations between mathematics anxiety, symbolic numerical magnitude processing and arithmetic skills from first to second grade

We investigated the levels of and changes in mathematics anxiety (MA), symbolic numerical magnitude processing (SNMP) and arithmetic skills, and how those changes are linked to each other. Children's (n = 264) MA, SNMP and arithmetic skills were measured in Grade 1, and again in Grade 2, also including a mathematics performance test. All three constructs correlated significantly within each time point, and the rank-order stability over time was high, particularly in SNMP and arithmetic skills. By means of latent change score modelling, we found overall increases in SNMP and arithmetic skills over time, but not in MA. Most interestingly, changes in arithmetic skills and MA were correlated (i.e. steeper increase in arithmetic skills was linked with less steep increase in MA), as were changes in SNMP and arithmetic skills (i.e. improvement in SNMP was associated with improvement in arithmetic skills). Only the initial level of arithmetic skills and change in it predicted mathematics performance. The only gender difference, in favour of boys, was found in SNMP skills. The differential effects associated with MA (developmentally only linked with arithmetic skills) and gender (predicting only changes in SNMP) call for further longitudinal research on the different domains of mathematical skills.

Assessing math anxiety in elementary schoolchildren through a Spanish version of the Scale for Early Mathematics Anxiety (SEMA)

Math anxiety (MA) affects students of all age groups. Because of its effects on children’s academic development, the need to recognize its early manifestations has been highlighted. We designed a European-Spanish version of the Scale for Early Mathematics Anxiety (SEMA; Wu et al. (2012)), and assessed its psychometric properties in a sample of children aged 7 to 12 years. The participants (967 typically developing children) were elementary school students recruited from ten schools. Children reported their general and math anxiety levels in an individual session and performed nonverbal IQ and math abilities subtests in a group session. Teachers reported the final math grades. The psychometric indices obtained, and the resulting factor structure revealed that the European-Spanish version of the SEMA developed in this study is a reliable and valid measure to evaluate MA in children from 3^rd to 6^th grade. Moreover, we explored gender differences, that resulted in small effect sizes, which disappeared when controlling for trait anxiety. Differences across grades were found for both global MA and the numerical processing anxiety factor but not for the situational and performance anxiety factor. Finally, MA was negatively associated with students’ math achievement, although the strength of the associations varied with the MA measure selected, the kind of math achievement analyzed, and the school stage considered. Our findings highlight the relevance of MA in elementary school and highlight the need for an early identification of students at risk of suffering MA to palliate the negative consequences of MA in children’s cognitive and academic development.

Peer Tutoring Effects on Students' Mathematics Anxiety: A Middle School Experience

In this research the effects of reciprocal peer tutoring on students' mathematics anxiety levels were examined. A pretest posttest with control group design was used at a public middle school in Spain. A total of 420 students in 7th, 8th, and 9th grades participated in the study, of which 215 were female and 205 were male. Students were randomly assigned and equally distributed by course grade (140 in each course grade) and experimental condition (210 in the experimental group and 210 in the control group). Quantitative data were gathered using the Mathematics Anxiety Scale developed by Chiu and Henry (1990). Qualitative information was gathered during eight focus group sessions that were held with students. Two main factors were analyzed using the quantitative and qualitative information: mathematics learning anxiety and mathematics evaluation anxiety. Results were analyzed by gender and course grade. Statistically significant improvements were reported for both male and female students in the experimental group and for each course grade for both factors. No statistically significant differences were reported for students in the control group in any case. A moderate effect size was reported for mathematics evaluation anxiety (Hedge's g = 0.42), and a large effect size was reported for mathematics learning anxiety (Hedge's g = 0.84). Information obtained from the focus groups was consistent with the reported quantitative results. The main conclusion is that peer tutoring may be very beneficial for reducing middle school students' mathematics anxiety, regardless of their gender or grade.

How mathematics anxiety affects students' inflexible perseverance in mathematics problem-solving: Examining the mediating role of cognitive reflection

BACKGROUND

Too many students persevere in relying upon one (sometimes suboptimal) strategy for solving a wide range of problems, even when they know more efficient strategies. Although many studies have mentioned such phenomena, few studies have examined how emotional factors could affect this type of inflexible perseverance in strategy use.

AIMS

To examine whether mathematics anxiety could affect students' inflexible perseverance in strategy use and whether this effect could be mediated by cognitive reflection, which is the ability to engage in deliberate reasoning.

SAMPLE AND METHOD

In Study 1, 164 undergraduate students' (18-22 years) mathematics anxiety, cognitive reflection, and performance in overcoming inflexible perseverance were measured by a questionnaire battery. Structural equation models were used to examine the correlations between these variables. In Study 2, 98 undergraduate freshmen (17-18 years) were assigned to two groups, where one group's mathematics anxiety was temporarily induced by task instructions, while the other group served as a control group. Cognitive reflection and inflexible perseverance of the two groups were compared.

RESULTS

Study 1 showed that mathematics anxiety was negatively correlated with students' performance on overcoming inflexible perseverance, while cognitive reflection mediated such an effect. Study 2 showed that compared to the control group, the experimental group showed lower cognitive reflection, which led to lower performance in overcoming inflexible perseverance.

CONCLUSIONS

Mathematics anxiety was showed to impair students' ability to engage in deliberate reasoning and was associated with inflexible use of strategies. Alleviating students' mathematics anxiety should be considered when promoting students' strategic flexibility.

Predicting Mathematics Achievement in Secondary Education: The Role of Cognitive, Motivational, and Emotional Variables

Academic achievement in general, and in mathematics in particular, is positively associated not only with cognitive abilities, but also with emotional and motivational skills. The objective of this study was to analyze the prediction strength of cognitive, motivational, and emotional variables in mathematics achievement throughout high school, considering students’ gender and age. A large sample of 2,365 Spanish students from the 4 years of high school (12–16 years old) participated in the study. Students provided information about their intellectual skills, perceived competence in mathematics, perceived utility of mathematics, intrinsic interest in learning, mathematics anxiety, and their causal attributions (for failure and for success), and of their achievement in mathematics. Data showed differences according to gender and the school grade level. The motivational and affective variables did not seem to play an important role in this relationship as predicted in the current study. The results of this study are discussed in light of previous research.

State- and trait-math anxiety and their relation to math performance in children: The role of core executive functions

This study examines the interplay of state- and trait-math anxiety (MA) and core executive functions (CEF) on math achievement in children. According to attention control theory, MA affects the CEF by triggering the inhibition function, so that some working memory (WM) is blocked, thus reducing task processing capacity. However, research on the interplay between MA and CEF in children is rare, and the findings in the literature are inconsistent. In this paper, state- and trait-MA, math achievement, CEF (inhibition, cognitive flexibility, working memory capacity, global index of CEF) and self-ratings of ADHD symptoms (attention deficits, hyperactivity, impulsiveness) of 646 fourth and fifth grade students (48.1% girls) are assessed. CEF were evaluated with a tablet-based test. The data revealed negative correlations between state-MA and math achievement for all CEF levels and cognitive processes. However, inhibition control functioned as a moderator of the relation between state-MA and math achievement. Children with higher inhibition abilities showed more pronounced negative relations. No moderation effects were identified for working memory capacity and the CEF global index. The findings highlight the importance of distinguishing between these three CEF and raise questions for future research on the interplay between cognitive and affective factors as predictors of math achievement.

Mathematics anxiety and cognition: an integrated neural network model

Many students suffer from anxiety when performing numerical calculations. Mathematics anxiety is a condition that has a negative effect on educational outcomes and future employment prospects. While there are a multitude of behavioral studies on mathematics anxiety, its underlying cognitive and neural mechanism remain unclear. This article provides a systematic review of cognitive studies that investigated mathematics anxiety. As there are no prior neural network models of mathematics anxiety, this article discusses how previous neural network models of mathematical cognition could be adapted to simulate the neural and behavioral studies of mathematics anxiety. In other words, here we provide a novel integrative network theory on the links between mathematics anxiety, cognition, and brain substrates. This theoretical framework may explain the impact of mathematics anxiety on a range of cognitive and neuropsychological tests. Therefore, it could improve our understanding of the cognitive and neurological mechanisms underlying mathematics anxiety and also has important applications. Indeed, a better understanding of mathematics anxiety could inform more effective therapeutic techniques that in turn could lead to significant improvements in educational outcomes.

The role of cognitive and non-cognitive factors in mathematics achievement: The importance of the quality of the student-teacher relationship in middle school

There is increasing evidence that several factors, including both cognitive and non-cognitive ones, play an important role in mathematics achievement. Relatively little is known about how socio-emotional features and the quality of the student-teacher relationship correlate with mathematics achievement among adolescents in transition to middle school. The aim of the present study is to examine the role of cognitive factors (general cognitive abilities), non-cognitive factors (math anxiety and self-esteem), and the quality of the student-teacher relationship on mathematics achievement. A large sample of Italian sixth graders was evaluated upon entering middle school. The results showed that general cognitive ability was the best predictor of mathematics achievement. As regards non-cognitive factors, the level of math anxiety was effective in predicting mathematics achievement, after controlling for other measures including self-esteem and the quality of the student-teacher relationship. In particular, we found that the quality of the student-teacher relationship had an indirect influence on mathematics achievement through the mediation of math anxiety. Our findings seem to indicate that the quality of the student-teacher relationship may be related to mathematics achievement, through its effects on math anxiety. This may have important implications for practitioners and educators, as we can suggest that interventions devoted to improving the quality of the student-teacher relationship may play a positive role in both preventing math anxiety and promoting mathematics learning.

The Relationship Between Math Anxiety and Math Performance: A Meta-Analytic Investigation

Math anxiety (MA) has been suggested to decrease the math performance of students. However, it remains unclear what factors moderate this relationship. The aim of this research was to explore the link between MA and math performance. Studies that explored the math anxiety-performance link, conducted from 2000 to 2019 (84 samples, N = 8680), were identified and statistically integrated with a meta-analysis method. The results indicated a robust negative math anxiety-performance link. Furthermore, regarding the analysis of moderator variables, this negative link was stronger in the studies that involved Asian students, but this link was the weakest in the studies that involved European students. Moreover, this negative link was stronger in the studies within a senior high school group, whereas it was the weakest in the studies within an elementary group. Finally, this negative link was strongest among studies that used a custom test and studies that assessed problem-solving skills. Potential explanations and implications for research and practice are discussed.

Measuring Test Anxiety With an Invariant Measure Across Genders: The Case of the German Test Anxiety Inventory

Since test performance is increasingly relevant in educational and occupational circles, the assessment of test anxiety—the phenomenological, physiological, and behavioral responses to the negative consequences that often emerge in evaluative situations—has become increasingly important to scholars and practitioners. One of the most widely employed scales to measure test anxiety in adolescents is the German Test Anxiety Inventory (in German: Prufungsangstfragebogen, PAF). The current study investigated the psychometric properties of the PAF when administered to Italian students. Our research found evidence of validity, supported the five-factor structure, and demonstrated the test’s good internal consistency. Moreover, the invariance of the dimensional structure across genders was examined. Overall, this study provides evidence for the reliability and validity of the PAF among Italian students.

Math Anxiety in Combination With Low Visuospatial Memory Impairs Math Learning in Children

Math anxiety impairs academic achievements in mathematics. According to the processing efficiency theory (PET), the adverse effect is the result of reduced processing capacity in working memory (WM). However, this relationship has been examined mostly with correlational designs. Therefore, using an intervention paradigm, we examined the effects of math anxiety on math learning. Twenty-five 5th graders underwent seven training sessions of multiplication over the course of 2 weeks. Children were faster and made fewer errors in solving trained problems than untrained problems after learning. By testing the relationship between math anxiety, WM, and math learning, we found that if children have little or no math anxiety, enough WM resources are left for math learning, so learning is not impeded. If they have high math anxiety and high visuospatial WM, some WM resources are needed to deal with math anxiety but learning is still supported. However, if they have high math anxiety and low visuospatial WM capacity, math learning is significantly impaired. These children have less capacity to learn new math content as cognitive resources are diverted to deal with their math anxiety. We conclude that math anxiety not only hinders children's performance in the present but potentially has long-lasting consequences, because it impairs not only math performance but also math learning. This intervention study partially supports the PET because only the combination of high math anxiety and low WM capacity seems critical for hindering math learning. Moreover, an adverse effect of math anxiety was observed on performance effectiveness (response accuracy) but not processing efficiency (response time).

A Framework for Studying the Heterogeneity of Risk Factors in Math Anxiety

Math anxiety is a prevalent disorder which affects many people worldwide. Here, we draw together ample evidence to suggest a dynamic developmental bio-psycho-social model. The model highlights the complex pathways towards the development of math anxiety, with a focus on dynamism. That is, math anxiety is viewed here as a dynamic interplay between environmental (parenting style, as well as social style including teachers' attitude, instruction strategies and wider social effects) and intrinsic factors (i.e., neuro-cognitive and genetic predispositions, including brain malfunctions, heritability, predisposition towards general anxiety) and basic numerical cognition and affective factors. The model predicts that the dynamic interplay between these factors can either prevent or promote math anxiety's effects on the development of heterogeneous symptoms. Considering the universal nature of math anxiety, a systematic description of the vulnerability factors that contribute to the development of math anxiety is vital. Such information may be of particular value in informing the design of preventive interventions as well as of specific intervention tools.

Spotlight on math anxiety

Anxiety disorders are some of the most widespread mental health issues worldwide. In educational settings, individuals may suffer from specific forms of test and performance anxiety that are connected to a knowledge domain. Unquestionably, the most prominent of these is math anxiety. Math anxiety is a widespread problem for all ages across the globe. In the international assessments of the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) studies, a majority of adolescents report worry and tension in math classes and when doing math. To understand how math anxiety takes effect, it has to be regarded as a variable within an ensemble of interacting variables. There are antecedents that facilitate the development of math anxiety. They concern environmental factors such as teachers’ and parents’ attitudes toward their students’ and children’s ability in math, societal stereotypes (eg, on females’ math abilities), or personal factors such as traits or gender. These antecedents influence a number of variables that are important in learning processes. Math anxiety interacts with variables such as self-efficacy or motivation in math, which can intensify or counteract math anxiety. Outcomes of math anxiety concern not only performance in math-related situations, they can also have long-term effects that involve efficient (or not-so-efficient) learning as well as course and even vocational choices. How can math anxiety be counteracted? A first step lies in its correct diagnosis. Questionnaires for the assessment of math anxiety exist for all age groups, starting at primary education level. Help against math anxiety can be offered on different levels: by educational institutions, by teachers and a change in instructional approaches, by parents, or by the affected person. However, much more research is needed to develop effective measures against math anxiety that are tailored to an individual’s characteristics and needs.

Behavioral Performance and Neural Areas Associated with Memory Processes Contribute to Math and Reading Achievement in 6-year-old Children

Associations between working memory and academic achievement (math and reading) are well documented. Surprisingly, little is known of the contributions of episodic memory, segmented into temporal memory (recollection proxy) and item recognition (familiarity proxy), to academic achievement. This is the first study to observe these associations in typically developing 6-year old children. Overlap in neural correlates exists between working memory, episodic memory, and math and reading achievement. We attempted to tease apart the neural contributions of working memory, temporal memory, and item recognition to math and reading achievement. Results suggest that working memory and temporal memory, but not item recognition, are important contributors to both math and reading achievement, and that EEG power during a working memory task contributes to performance on tests of academic achievement.

Interactivity mitigates the impact of working memory depletion on mental arithmetic performance

Doing long sums in the absence of complementary actions or artefacts is a multistep procedure that quickly taxes working memory; congesting the phonological loop further handicaps performance. In the experiment reported here, participants completed long sums either with hands down – the low interactivity condition – or by moving numbered tokens – the high interactivity condition – while they repeated “the” continuously, loading the phonological loop, or not. As expected, interactivity and articulatory suppression substantially affected performance; critically, the effect of articulatory suppression was stronger in the low than in the high interactivity condition. In addition, an independent measure of mathematics anxiety predicted the impact of articulatory suppression on performance only in the low (not high) interactivity condition. These findings suggest that interactivity augmented overall or systemic working memory resources and diminished the effect of mathematics anxiety, underscoring the importance of characterizing the properties of the system as it is configured by the dynamic agent-environment coupling

How Math Anxiety Relates to Number-Space Associations

Given the considerable prevalence of math anxiety, it is important to identify the factors contributing to it in order to improve mathematical learning. Research on math anxiety typically focusses on the effects of more complex arithmetic skills. Recent evidence, however, suggests that deficits in basic numerical processing and spatial skills also constitute potential risk factors of math anxiety. Given these observations, we determined whether math anxiety also depends on the quality of spatial-numerical associations. Behavioral evidence for a tight link between numerical and spatial representations is given by the SNARC (spatial-numerical association of response codes) effect, characterized by faster left-/right-sided responses for small/large digits respectively in binary classification tasks. We compared the strength of the SNARC effect between high and low math anxious individuals using the classical parity judgment task in addition to evaluating their spatial skills, arithmetic performance, working memory and inhibitory control. Greater math anxiety was significantly associated with stronger spatio-numerical interactions. This finding adds to the recent evidence supporting a link between math anxiety and basic numerical abilities and strengthens the idea that certain characteristics of low-level number processing such as stronger number–space associations constitute a potential risk factor of math anxiety.