Hypernetworks Reveal Compound Variables That Capture Cooperative and Competitive Interactions in a Soccer Match

Early identification of the opposition shot taker characterises elite goalkeepers' ability to read the game

Researchers investigating expertise in soccer goalkeepers have overwhelmingly focused on anticipating penalty kicks and identifying kinematic cues that are used to anticipate action outcomes. In this study, we took a novel approach to exploring 'game reading' skills in soccer goalkeepers. Specifically, we investigated whether and by what point during an attacking sequence in open play, elite goalkeepers can identify the opposition shot taker, a skill that is likely to facilitate organisation of the defensive line and interception of forward creative attacking passes. We used a moving window temporal occlusion paradigm to present elite, sub-elite, and amateur goalkeepers with 11-vs-11 attacking sequences that were divided into progressive segments. After viewing each segment, participants identified the player they thought would shoot at goal at the end of the attacking sequence. Elite goalkeepers identified the opposition shot taker earlier and more accurately than sub-elite and amateur participants. Findings suggest that elite goalkeeping is underpinned not only by anticipation of action outcomes but also game-reading skill that enables identification of the player most likely to carry out those actions.

In which rounds were the most rotations of key players made, and how did this affect physical activity? Analysis of the eight best teams of the 2018 FIFA world cup Russia

BACKGROUND

Team management, especially player selection, rotation, and availability, are critical issues when dealing with the high demands of modern training and gameplay. As such, research continuously seeks ways to improve these actions or implement new ideas to gain a competitive advantage through the rotation of players in the starting line-up. The current study aimed to examine the rounds of the 2018 FIFA World Cup Russia in which the most rotations of key players were made and how this affected physical activity.

METHODS

The sample consisted of 110 players from the top eight teams in the 2018 World Cup Russia who played entire matches for up to 90 min in seven consecutive games. All players were divided into key players (KPs, n = 58) and non-key players (NKPs, n = 52). The analysis used data collected by an advanced motion analysis system known as STATS®, with physical activity variables analyzed, including total distance covered (TDC), distance covered with high intensity over 20 km/h (HIR), and the number of sprints undertaken. In statistical analysis, differences between categories and consecutive matches were calculated using the Kruskal-Wallis H test, and if a significant effect size was found, a multiple comparisons p values test was performed.

RESULTS

The best teams at the 2018 FIFA World Cup Russia used the most KP rotations with NKPs in the third match of the group stage. In addition, this was even more visible among more successful teams than less successful teams. The rotation strategy among the best eight teams allowed them to maintain the physical activity of KPs and NKPs in all rounds of the tournament.

CONCLUSIONS

Coaches and coaching staff should incorporate squad rotation that includes a large group of players in their team management to improve their success. Team management expertise in player rotation during matches played over congested schedules at top tournaments maintains high levels of physical activity indicators (TDC, HIR, and sprints).

Bonitation assessment of intensively used football turf depending on the date and area of observation

This article aimed to evaluate the visual and functional characteristics of intensively used football turf over 10 years, depending on the different areas of the game. The research was conducted on the football turf of the AZS Environmental Club in Wrocław (N: 51° 7' 31'' E:17° 4' 14''). High variability of the evaluated parameters was observed regarding seasonality, year of observation, and the area of play. It has been shown that the goal area and penalty box areas have the lowest functional value, which are vital areas of the game from the point of view of gaining an advantage in the game. Also, these places are more susceptible to creating sites without plants (requiring additional overseeding) due to the potential of hollowing and goalkeeper interventions ending with the body landing on the ground. The middle area was characterized by the highest overall aspect, color, and turf density values. In the vast majority of cases, there was a downward trend in the turfs' functional value with the turf's age, which is an essential finding in the context of the use of intensively used, athletic natural grass surfaces.

The Effects of Physiological Demands on Visual Search Behaviours During 2 vs. 1 + GK Game Situations in Football: An in-situ Approach

We examined the effect of physiological workload on gaze behaviour during defensive performance in 2 vs. 1 +goalkeeper game situations in football. Twenty-two players were assigned to either a high- or low-performing group based on a validated measure of tactical performance. A total of 12 game sequences (trials) were presented under high- and low-workload conditions. At the end of each sequence, participants were asked to indicate their perceived exertion using the Rating Scale of Mental Effort and the Borg Scale. The low- and high-workload conditions were defined when the players achieved 60 and 90% of their maximal heart rate, respectively, as per their performance in the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test. Visual search behaviours were recorded using Tobii Pro eye-movement registration glasses. Players reported higher rates of perceived exertion on the high- compared to low-workload condition. Participants in the low-performing group increased their average fixation duration and decreased the number of fixations and number of fixation locations from the low- to high-workload conditions. The low- and high-performing groups displayed different visual search strategies with regards the areas of interest fixated upon. Participants in the high-performing group focused on the SpaceFrontPlayer, followed by Ball, and AnotherOpponent. The low-performing group spent more time focusing on the SpaceFrontPlayer and SpacePlayer than Ball and AnotherOpponent. It appears that physiological workload and tactical expertise interact in constraining visual search behaviours in football players. Coaches and practitioners should consider ways to manipulate individual and task constraints while attending to the close interplay between physiological workload, visual behaviour, and tactical performance during practise.

Goal Shot Analysis in Elite Water Polo—World Cup Final 2018 in Berlin

The subject of this game analysis was the throwing behavior of the world class players under competition match conditions during the final “World Cup Water Polo” tournament 2018 in Berlin. Specifically, we analyzed (a) the situational dependence of concrete environmental conditions (“constraints”) of successful throwing actions as well as (b) the goal throw biomechanics concerning throwing speed. Therefore, player’s and ball positions were recorded by video cameras as well as high-speed cameras. Based on the positions and trajectories parameters such as goal throw speed, Voronoi-cells as well as team centroids were calculated. The area of the Voronoi-cells differs concerning defending and attacking teams as well as between successful and non-successful teams and can be used as an indicator for goal or no goal. Under semi-collective tactical aspects, the comparison of the offensively and defensively controlled field areas (collective space control) between successful and unsuccessful goal throws shows that in the case of successful attacking completions, the attacking team (in the sum of its six players) each controlled significantly more field area in front of the opponent’s goal than the six defensive players together with their goalkeeper. In the case of unsuccessful attacking attempts, this area ratio was exactly reversed, i.e., the defensive team dominated the space.

Different Pitch Configurations Constrain the Playing Tactics and the Creation of Goal Scoring Opportunities during Small Sided Games in Youth Soccer Players

The aim of this study was to explore the tactical effects of different pitch configurations on the collective playing tactics and the creation of goal scoring opportunities (GSO) during small sided soccer games (SSG) in youth players. A total of 22 players performed a 7 vs. 7 + 1 floater (including goalkeepers) under three different pitch configurations (“Standard”, 53 × 38 m; “Long”, 63 × 32 m; and “Wide”, 43 × 47 m). Eleven tactical indicators related to the development and the end of the team possessions were evaluated by systematic observation. Friedman tests (non-parametric ANOVA for repeated measures) revealed that the long and wide configurations produced more counterattacks (p = 0.0028; ES = 0.3), higher offensive penetration (p = 0.007; ES = 0.41), and more GSO (p = 0.018; ES = 0.30) than the standard format. Regarding the creation of GSO, the wide configuration produced more assists in the form of crosses than the long and standard formats (p = 0.025; ES = 0.31), more utilization of wide subspaces to assist the final player (p = 0.022; ES = 0.35), more number of headers as the final action (p = 0.022; ES = 0.32), and less assists in the form of passes in behind the defense (p = 0.034; ES = 0.28), than the long configuration. The modulation of the pitch configuration during SSG produced different tactical demands, requiring players to implement different tactical solutions to create GSO.

The Effect of Squad Rotation on Physical Activity at the 2018 World Cup in Russia. Analysis the Most Exploited Players of the 4 Best Teams

The purpose of this study was to examine how the four best teams in the 2018 Football Men's World Cup rotate by squad and how this impact the physical activity of the teams in consecutive rounds. The study sample consisted of the 31 players of the 4 best teams, who played in every tournament match, except for the third game of the group stage. The analysis included 186 observations and was carried out on the most exploited players (MEP) excluding goalkeepers, who played at least 450 mins (5 full matches) in the tournament. The analysis was conducted using data collected by an advanced motion analysis system known as STATS®. The selected physical activity parameters analyzed included: total distance covered (m/min), distance covered at various intensity ranges (m/min), top speed (km/h), and number of sprints performed. It was found that all four teams in the third match of the group stage have performed the largest number of rotations with most exploited players and introduced the highest number of rested players (7.75 ± 2.06). A significant increase was observed between the second and fourth match in the 0–7 km/h distance covered (37.99 ± 3.19–39.23 ± 3.35 m/min) and the top speed (28.12 ± 2.22–29.21 ± 2.64 km/h)—p < 0.05. Furthermore, MEPs in the knockout stage, used pacing strategies by increasing the amount of low-intensity running to maintain high intensity during the game. From a practical point of view, this investigation shows that squad rotation can be a valuable support to a pacing strategy by players.

Sport Performance Analysis with a Focus on Racket Sports: A Review

Athletes, both professional and amateur, are always looking for ways to improve their performance. With the introduction and increasing availability of modern technologies and smart devices arose the need to measure and analyze performance, but likewise, the use of these innovations as a competitive advantage also arose. Scientific publications reflect the wide range of available approaches and technologies, as well as the growing interest in various sports. As a result, we concentrated on a systematic review of publications that presented performance analysis tools and methods in all sports, with a final focus on racket sports. Clarivate Analytics’ Web of Science (WoS) and Elsevier Inc.’s SCOPUS databases were searched for 1147 studies that conducted performance analysis and sports research and were published in English. The data in the systematic review are current, up until 18 May 2021. A general review was performed on 759 items, and then 65 racket sports publications were thoroughly scrutinized. We concentrated on performance data, data collection and analysis tools, performance analysis methods, and software. We also talked about performance prediction. In performance research, we have identified specific approaches for specific sports as well as key countries. We are also considering expanding performance analysis in to E-sports in the future.

Effects of Small-Sided Game Interventions on the Technical Execution and Tactical Behaviors of Young and Youth Team Sports Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background: Small-sided games (SSGs) are an adjusted form of official games that are often used in training scenarios to introduce a specific tactical issue to team sports players. Besides the acute effects of SSGs on players' performance, it is expectable that the consistent use of these drill-based games induces adaptations in the technical execution and tactical behaviors of youth team sports players.

Objective: This systematic review with meta-analysis was conducted to assess the effects of SSG programs on the technical execution and tactical behaviors of young and youth team sports players.

Data Sources: The data sources utilized were PubMed, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science.

Study Eligibility Criteria: (i) Young and youth team sports players (i.e., < 18 years old) of any sex or skill level, without injury, illness, or other clinical conditions; (ii) SSGs-based programs not restricted to the duration and a minimum of one weekly training session; (iii) passive or active control groups; (iv) pre-post interventions values of technical execution and/or tactical behavior; (v) randomized and non-randomized controlled trials; and (vi) peer-reviewed original full-text studies written in English, Portuguese and/or Spanish.

Results: The database search initially yielded 803 titles. From those, six articles were eligible for the systematic review and meta-analysis. None of the included studies presented tactical behavior outcomes. The results showed a small effect of SSGs on technical execution (ES = 0.59; 95% CI = 0.29 to 0.89; p < 0.001; I² = 0.0%; Egger's test p = 0.590) when compared to controls. Sub-group analysis of the training factor revealed similar (p = 0.433) moderate (ES = 0.68, four study groups) and small (ES = 0.44, three study groups) improvements in technical execution after >17 and <17 SSG training sessions, respectively.

Conclusions: This systematic review and meta-analysis revealed a significant beneficial effect of using SSG training programs for enhancing technical execution in young and youth players. The benefits were similar despite the various numbers of training sessions applied. Further studies should add tactical behaviors as one of the outcomes for controlling the effects of SSG training programs.

Direction of travel of time zones crossed and results achieved by soccer players. The road from the 2018 FIFA World Cup to UEFA EURO 2020

The study detailed here has sought to assess the physical and technical activity engaged in by football players in the light of the direction of travel in which time zones were crossed as players transferred from training centres to match venues, in the context of matches played at the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia. The material consisted of 945 observations of 340 players. Analysed: total distances covered [km], distances covered with high-intensity running (20-25 km/h) [m], numbers of sprints, numbers of shots, numbers of passes, pass accuracy [%] and the official ranking of national teams. Three categories of time-zone shift (training centre → match venue) were taken account of, i.e. (1) West→East (WE), (2) Same Zone (SZ) and (3) East→West (EW). Analysis of results revealed that players in the EW and SZ categories were able to achieve results significantly better than those moving WE (total distances covered H = 11.815(2); p = 0.003; numbers of passes H = 7.630(2); p = 0.022), and this in relation to team placings in the end-of-tournament ranking (H = 18.099(2); p = 0.001). The results will be valuable in searching places for training centres during future FIFA World Cup and UEFA European Championship competitions.

Using Optical Tracking System Data to Measure Team Synergic Behavior: Synchronization of Player-Ball-Goal Angles in a Football Match

The ecological dynamics approach to interpersonal relationships provides theoretical support to the use of kinematic data, obtained with sensor-based systems, in which players of a team are linked mainly by information from the performance environment. Our goal was to capture the properties of synergic behavior in football, using spatiotemporal data from one match of the 2018 FIFA WORLD CUP RUSSIA, to explore the application of player-ball-goal angles in cluster phase analysis. Linear mixed effects models were used to test the statistical significance of different effects, such as: team, half(-time), role and pitch zones. Results showed that the cluster phase values (synchronization) for the home team, had a 3.812×10−2±0.536×10−2 increase with respect to the away team (X2(41)=259.8, p<0.001) and that changing the role from with ball to without ball increased synchronization by 16.715×10−2±0.283×10−2 (X2(41)=12227.0, p<0.001). The interaction between effects was also significant. The player-team relative phase, the player-ball-goal angles relative frequency and the team configurations, showed that variations of synchronization might indicate critical performance changes (ball possession changes, goals scored, etc.). This study captured the ongoing player-environment link and the properties of team synergic behavior, supporting the use of sensor-based data computations in the development of relevant indicators for tactical analysis in sports.

How did three consecutive matches with extra time affect physical performance? A case study of the 2018 football Men's World Cup

The purpose of this study was to ascertain the effect of playing three consecutive matches with extra time (ET) on the physical performance of selected Croatian players in their subsequent match, the final of the 2018 Men's World Cup in Russia. The case study consisted of 4 players on the Croatian national team (16 observations) who had played in all three matches up to 120 min. The consecutive full time matches (90 minutes) and extra time (30 minutes) were compared. The analysis was conducted using data collected by an advanced motion analysis system known as STATS and from interviews with the strength and conditioning coach of the Croatian national team. The recorded variables used were: total distance covered [m], distances covered [m] at intensity ranges of 20-25 km/h and above 25 km/h, and number of sprints performed. All the studied parameters systematically increased in each match up to 90 minutes of play, reached their maximum values in the semi-final and then decreased in the final match. Compared to the first extra time period, in the third extra time period the players covered twice as much distance with an intensity of 20-25 km/h and above 25 km/h, and recorded twice as many sprints. This investigation shows that players in central positions on the pitch are able to maintain or even increase high and very high intensity activity in three consecutive matches with extra time. These data complement the developing body of literature relating to the influence of accumulation of match play with extra time periods on high level players.

How Training Tools Physically Linking Soccer Players Improve Interpersonal Coordination

Interpersonal coordination is an important skill for promoting collective behavior in team sports. This study tested the impact of two types of tools in facilitating triadic coordination. 16 males aged under 12 years were divided into four groups with similar skill levels and average ages. Each group performed a three-versus-one ball passing task under three conditions: a one-elastic-band tool linking the three players, a three-elastic-bands tool linking the three players, and without a tool linking the three players. The dependent variables were ball passing frequency, frequency and amplitude of inner angles of the triangle formed by the players, and duration of the synchronized patterns of the inner angles. The results show that neither tool increased ball-passing frequency or the duration of synchronized patterns. However, both tools increased the frequency of inner angles, and the three-elastic-bands tool decreased the amplitude of inner angles. From these results, we conclude that elastic-band tools affect spatial and temporal triadic formation by means of haptic and visual information. Specifically, compared with the one-elastic-band tool, the three-elastic-bands tool stabilizes the triadic spatial formation. We also explore the implications for how these tools can be used in practice.

The Role of Hypernetworks as a Multilevel Methodology for Modelling and Understanding Dynamics of Team Sports Performance

Despite its importance in many academic fields, traditional scientific methodologies struggle to cope with analysis of interactions in many complex adaptive systems, including team sports. Inherent features of such systems (e.g. emergent behaviours) require a more holistic approach to measurement and analysis for understanding system properties. Complexity sciences encompass a holistic approach to research on collective adaptive systems, which integrates concepts and tools from other theories and methods (e.g. ecological dynamics and social network analysis) to explain functioning of such systems in their natural environments. Multilevel networks and hypernetworks comprise novel and potent methodological tools for assessing team dynamics at more sophisticated levels of analysis, increasing their potential to impact on competitive performance in team sports. Here, we discuss how concepts and tools derived from studies of multilevel networks and hypernetworks have the potential for revealing key properties of sports teams as complex, adaptive social systems. This type of analysis can provide valuable information on team performance, which can be used by coaches, sport scientists and performance analysts for enhancing practice and training. We examine the relevance of network sciences, as a sub-discipline of complexity sciences, for studying the dynamics of relational structures of sports teams during practice and competition. Specifically, we explore the benefits of implementing multilevel networks, in contrast to traditional network techniques, highlighting future research possibilities. We conclude by recommending methods for enhancing the applicability of hypernetworks in analysing team dynamics at multiple levels.

Unlocking the potential of big data to support tactical performance analysis in professional soccer: A systematic review

In professional soccer, increasing amounts of data are collected that harness great potential when it comes to analysing tactical behaviour. Unlocking this potential is difficult as big data challenges the data management and analytics methods commonly employed in sports. By joining forces with computer science, solutions to these challenges could be achieved, helping sports science to find new insights, as is happening in other scientific domains. We aim to bring multiple domains together in the context of analysing tactical behaviour in soccer using position tracking data. A systematic literature search for studies employing position tracking data to study tactical behaviour in soccer was conducted in seven electronic databases, resulting in 2338 identified studies and finally the inclusion of 73 papers. Each domain clearly contributes to the analysis of tactical behaviour, albeit in - sometimes radically - different ways. Accordingly, we present a multidisciplinary framework where each domain's contributions to feature construction, modelling and interpretation can be situated. We discuss a set of key challenges concerning the data analytics process, specifically feature construction, spatial and temporal aggregation. Moreover, we discuss how these challenges could be resolved through multidisciplinary collaboration, which is pivotal in unlocking the potential of position tracking data in sports analytics.

A Systematic Review of Collective Tactical Behaviours in Football Using Positional Data

BACKGROUND

Performance analysis research in association football has recently cusped a paradigmatic shift in the way tactical behaviours are studied. Based on insights from system complexity research, a growing number of studies now analyse tactical behaviours in football based on the collective movements of team players.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this systematic review is to provide a summary of empirical research on collective tactical behaviours in football, with a particular focus on organising the methods used and their key findings.

METHODS

A systematic search of relevant English-language articles was performed on one database (Web of Science Core Collection) and one search engine (PubMed), based on PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses) guidelines. The keywords 'football' and 'soccer' were each paired with all possible combinations of the following keywords: 'collective movement behaviour', 'collective behaviour', 'tactical behaviour', 'interpersonal coordination', 'space', 'Voronoi', 'synchronisation', 'tactical analysis', 'constraints', 'ecological dynamics', and 'dynamic positioning'. Empirical studies that were related to tactical analyses of footballers' positional data were sought for inclusion and analysis.

RESULTS

Full-text articles of 77 studies were reviewed. A total of 27 tactical variables were identified, which were subsequently organised into 6 categories. In addition to conventional methods of linear analysis, 11 methods of nonlinear analysis were also used, which can be organised into measures of predictability (4 methods) and synchronisation (7 methods). The key findings of the reviewed studies were organised into two themes: levels of analysis, and levels of expertise.

CONCLUSIONS

Some trends in key findings revealed the following collective behaviours as possible indicators of better tactical expertise: higher movement regularity; wider dispersion in youth players and shorter readjustment delay between teammates and opponents. Characteristic behaviours were also observed as an effect of playing position, numerical inequality, and task constraints. Future research should focus on contextualising positional data, incorporating the needs of coaching staff, to better bridge the research-practice gap.

A multilevel hypernetworks approach to capture properties of team synergies at higher complexity levels

Previous work has sought to explain team coordination using insights from theories of synergy formation in collective systems. Under this theoretical rationale, players are conceptualised as independent degrees of freedom, whose interactions can become coupled to produce team synergies, guided by shared affordances. Previous conceptualisation from this perspective has identified key properties of synergies, the measurement of which can reveal important aspects of team dynamics. However, some team properties have been measured through implementation of a variety of methods, while others have only been loosely addressed. Here, we show how multilevel hypernetworks comprise an innovative methodological framework that can successfully capture key properties of synergies, clarifying conceptual issues concerning team collective behaviours based on team synergy formation. Therefore, this study investigated whether different synergy properties could be operationally related utilising hypernetworks. Thus, we constructed a multilevel model composed of three levels of analysis. Level N captured changes in tactical configurations of teams during competitive performance. While Team A changed from an initial 1-4-3-3 to a 1-4-4-2 tactical configuration, Team B altered the dynamics of the midfielders. At Level N + 1, the 2 vs. 1 (1 vs. 2) and 1 vs. 1 were the most frequently emerging simplices, both behind and ahead of the ball line for both competing teams. Level N + 2 allowed us to identify the prominent players (a6, a8, a12, a13) and their interactions, within and between simplices, before a goal was scored. These findings showed that different synergy properties can be assessed through hypernetworks, which can provide a coherent theoretical understanding of competitive team performance.

A multilevel hypernetworks approach to capture meso-level synchronisation processes in football

Understanding team behaviours in sports performance requires understanding the interdependencies established between their levels of complexity (micro-meso-macro). Previously, most studies examined interactions emerging at micro- and macro-levels, thus neglecting those emerging at a meso-level (reveals connections between player and team levels, depicted by the emergence of coordination in specific sub-groups of players-simplices during performance). We addressed this issue using the multilevel hypernetworks approach, adopting a cluster-phase method, to record player-simplice synchronies in two performance conditions where the number, size and location of goals were manipulated (first-condition: 6 × 6 + 4 mini-goals; second-condition: Gk + 6 × 6 + Gk). We investigated meso-level coordination tendencies, as a function of ball-possession (attacking/defending), field-direction (longitudinal/lateral) and teams (Team A/Team B). Generally, large synergistic relations and more stable patterns were observed in the longitudinal direction of the field than the lateral direction for both teams, and for both game phases in the first condition. The second condition displayed higher synchronies and more stable patterns in the lateral direction than the longitudinal plane for both teams, and for both game phases. Results suggest: (i) usefulness of hypernetworks in assessing synchronisation of teams at a meso-level; (ii) coaches may consider manipulating these task constraints to develop levels of local synchronies within teams.

Defining a historic football team: Using Network Science to analyze Guardiola's F.C. Barcelona

The application of Network Science to social systems has introduced new methodologies to analyze classical problems such as the emergence of epidemics, the arousal of cooperation between individuals or the propagation of information along social networks. More recently, the organization of football teams and their performance have been unveiled using metrics coming from Network Science, where a team is considered as a complex network whose nodes (i.e., players) interact with the aim of overcoming the opponent network. Here, we combine the use of different network metrics to extract the particular signature of the F.C. Barcelona coached by Guardiola, which has been considered one of the best teams along football history. We have first compared the network organization of Guardiola's team with their opponents along one season of the Spanish national league, identifying those metrics with statistically significant differences and relating them with the Guardiola's game. Next, we have focused on the temporal nature of football passing networks and calculated the evolution of all network properties along a match, instead of considering their average. In this way, we are able to identify those network metrics that enhance the probability of scoring/receiving a goal, showing that not all teams behave in the same way and how the organization Guardiola's F.C. Barcelona is different from the rest, including its clustering coefficient, shortest-path length, largest eigenvalue of the adjacency matrix, algebraic connectivity and centrality distribution.