Position Affects Performance in Multiple-Object Tracking in Rugby Union Players

Gaze Behavior and Cognitive Performance on Tasks of Multiple Object Tracking and Multiple Identity Tracking by Handball Players and Non-Athletes

Multiple object tracking (MOT) and multiple identity tracking (MIT) each measure the ability to track moving objects visually. While prior investigators have mainly compared athletes and non-athletes on MOT, MIT more closely resembles dynamic real-life environments. Here we compared the performance and gaze behavior of handball players with non-athletes on both MOT and MIT. Since previous researchers have shown that MOT and MIT engage different eye movement strategies, we had participants track 3-5 targets among 10 moving objects. In MOT, the objects were identical, while in MIT they differed in shape and color. Although we observed no group differences for tracking accuracy, the eye movements of athletes were more target-oriented than those of non-athletes. We concluded that tasks and stimuli intended by researchers to demonstrate that athletes' show better object tracking than non-athletes should be specific to the athletes' type of sport and should use more perception-action coupled measures. An implication of this conclusion is that the differences in object tracking skills between athletes and non-athletes is highly specific to the skills demanded by the athletes' sport.

Association between sports expertise and visual attention in male and female soccer players

Background

Visual attention plays a crucial role in daily living and in sports, affecting an athlete's performance and thus, potentially, the outcome of a match. However, studies assessing the association between the level of sports expertise and visual attention have yielded mixed results. This study was conducted to examine whether visual attention could be developed with increased sports expertise, and whether visual attention differed between male athletes and female athletes.

Methods

A total of 128 participants were included in this study: 64 first-level national soccer athletes recruited from college soccer teams (considered elite athletes; 32 men and 32 women with similar soccer performance requirements and training experience), and 64 physical education college students with limited soccer experience (considered novice athletes; 32 men and 32 women with matched soccer experience). To assess visual attention, we used a multiple object tracking (MOT) task with four targets among a total of 10 objects moving at a fixed speed of 10°/s in random directions across a computer monitor screen. Tracking accuracy on the MOT task was calculated for each participant as the proportion of correctly selected targets. A univariate analysis of variance was performed, with group (expert, novice) and sex (male, female) as independent variables, and tracking accuracy on the MOT task as the dependent variable to assess whether sports expertise or sex influenced visual attention. Simple effects tests followed by comparisons with Bonferroni corrections were used, and effect size calculations were performed using Cohen's f statistic.

Results

Tracking accuracy on the MOT task was significantly affected by sports expertise (F(1,124) = 91.732, p < 0.001, ηP2 = 0.425), with accuracy among expert soccer athletes superior to that among novice soccer athletes. Moreover, a statistically significant interaction between sports expertise and sex was detected (F(1,124) = 7.046, p = 0.009, η P2= 0.054). Better tracking performance was observed for male soccer players (mean [SD], 0.39 [0.12]) than for female soccer players (mean [SD], 0.27 [0.08]); p < 0.01; d=1.17; r = 0.51) but only in the novice group. No significant sex difference was detected in tracking performance between elite male soccer athletes (mean [SD], 0.51 [0.09]) and elite female soccer athletes (mean [SD], 0.49 [0.11]).

Conclusion

These findings confirm previous results indicating that long-term extensive sports training develops visual attention as assessed by MOT performance and extend previous findings to include soccer athletes. The findings of a sex difference in visual attention among novice soccer players but not among elite soccer athletes who had similar performance requirements and training experience suggest that long-term extensive training may minimize the sex difference in visual attention.

The relationship between sport types, sex and visual attention as assessed in a multiple object tracking task

This study was conducted to examine differences in visual attention according to sports type and sex. In total, 132 participants [open-skill sport athletes (basketball players), closed-skill sport athletes (swimmers), and non-athletes; n = 22 men and 22 women each] aged 19-24 years performed a multiple object tracking (MOT) task, which is a well-established paradigm for the assessment of visual attention. Visual tracking accuracy was affected by the sport type (p < 0.001), being superior among basketball players than among swimmers and non-athletes, with no significant difference between the latter groups. It also varied by sex (p < 0.001), being superior among males than among females. Significant interaction between the sport type and sex was observed (p < 0.001), with male and female basketball players showing similar tracking accuracy. Our results demonstrate that open-skill sport activities strongly related to visual attention, as estimated by MOT task performance, and that sex plays a role in this performance. They also indicate that females might gain a greater visual attention advantage from open than from closed-skill sports participation, as long-term open-skill sports training appeared to minimize the sex difference in visual attention.

Examining the ability to track multiple moving targets as a function of postural stability: a comparison between team sports players and sedentary individuals

Background

The ability to track multiple objects plays a key role in team ball sports actions. However, there is a lack of research focused on identifying multiple object tracking (MOT) performance under rapid, dynamic and ecologically valid conditions. Therefore, we aimed to assess the effects of manipulating postural stability on MOT performance.

Methods

Nineteen team sports players (soccer, basketball, handball) and sixteen sedentary individuals performed the MOT task under three levels of postural stability (high, medium, and low). For the MOT task, participants had to track three out of eight balls for 10 s, and the object speed was adjusted following a staircase procedure. For postural stability manipulation, participants performed three identical protocols (randomized order) of the MOT task while standing on an unstable platform, using the training module of the Biodex Balance System SD at levels 12 (high-stability), eight (medium-stability), and four (low-stability).

Results

We found that the ability to track moving targets is dependent on the balance stability conditions (F2,66 = 8.7, p < 0.001, η² = 0.09), with the disturbance of postural stability having a negative effect on MOT performance. Moreover, when compared to sedentary individuals, team sports players showed better MOT scores for the high-stability and the medium-stability conditions (corrected p-value = 0.008, Cohen's d = 0.96 and corrected p-value = 0.009, Cohen's d = 0.94; respectively) whereas no differences were observed for the more unstable conditions (low-stability) between-groups.

Conclusions

The ability to track moving targets is sensitive to the level of postural stability, with the disturbance of balance having a negative effect on MOT performance. Our results suggest that expertise in team sports training is transferred to non-specific sport domains, as shown by the better performance exhibited by team sports players in comparison to sedentary individuals. This study provides novel insights into the link between individual's ability to track multiple moving objects and postural control in team sports players and sedentary individuals.

Visual tracking assessment in a soccer-specific virtual environment: A web-based study

The ability to track teammates and opponents is an essential quality to achieve a high level of performance in soccer. The visual tracking ability is usually assessed in the laboratory with non-sport specific scenarios, leading in two major concerns. First, the methods used probably only partially reflects the actual ability to track players on the field. Second, it is unclear whether the situational features manipulated to stimulate visual tracking ability match those that make it difficult to track real players. In this study, participants had to track multiple players on a virtual soccer field. The virtual players moved according to either real or pseudo-random trajectories. The experiment was conducted online using a web application. Regarding the first concern, the visual tracking performance of players in soccer, other team sports, and non-team sports was compared to see if differences between groups varied with the use of soccer-specific or pseudo-random movements. Contrary to our assumption, the ANOVA did not reveal a greater tracking performance difference between soccer players and the two other groups when facing stimuli featuring movements from actual soccer games compared to stimuli featuring pseudo-random ones. Directing virtual players with real-world trajectories did not appear to be sufficient to allow soccer players to use soccer-specific knowledge in their visual tracking activity. Regarding the second concern, an original exploratory analysis based on Hierarchical Clustering on Principal Components was conducted to compare the situational features associated with hard-to-track virtual players in soccer-specific or pseudo-random movements. It revealed differences in the situational feature sets associated with hard-to-track players based on movement type. Essentially with soccer-specific movements, how the virtual players were distributed in space appeared to have a significant influence on visual tracking performance. These results highlight the need to consider real-world scenarios to understand what makes tracking multiple players difficult.

Multiple Players Tracking in Virtual Reality: Influence of Soccer Specific Trajectories and Relationship With Gaze Activity

The perceptual-cognitive ability to track multiple moving objects and its contribution to team sports performance has traditionally been studied in the laboratory under non-sports specific conditions. It is thus questionable whether the measured visual tracking performance and the underlying gaze activity reflected the actual ability of team sports players to track teammates and opponents on a real field. Using a Virtual Reality-based visual tracking task, the ability of participants to track multiple moving virtual players as they would do on a soccer field was observed to pursue two objectives. (i) See the influence of different scenario types (soccer-specific trajectories versus pseudo-random trajectories) on the visual tracking performance of soccer (n = 15) compared to non-soccer players (n = 16). (ii) Observe the influence of spatial features of the simulated situations on gaze activity between soccer players and non-soccer players. (i) The linear mixed model regression revealed a significant main effect of the group but no interaction effect between group and the type of trajectories, suggesting that the visual tracking ability of soccer players did not benefit from their specific knowledge when they faced scenarios with real game trajectories. (ii) Virtual players’ spatial dispersion and crowding affected the participants’ gaze activity and their visual tracking performance. Furthermore, the gaze activity of soccer players differed in some aspects from the gaze activity of non-soccer players. Assumptions are formulated as to the implication of these results in the difference in visual tracking performance between soccer players and non-soccer players. Overall, using soccer-specific trajectories might not be enough to replicate the representativeness of the field conditions in the study of visual tracking performance. Multitasking constraints should be considered along with motor-cognitive dual-tasks in future research to develop the representativeness of visual exploration conditions.

The effects of cognitive abilities and task demands on tonic and phasic pupil sizes

Previous studies on individual differences in pupil size of healthy individuals and their relation to performance have been inconclusive. Using a novel approach, we tested the effect of general cognitive abilities and level of task performance on pretrial baseline and task-evoked pupil (TEP) sizes (N = 116) while we manipulated the level of task demands using a multiple object tracking task. Results did not reveal an effect of general cognitive abilities, estimated by working memory capacity and gF scores, on either baseline or TEP sizes. In contrast, we found an interaction in TEP sizes between level of overall MOT performance and task demands. We propose that individual differences in TEP sizes are related to state-specific level of task performance and task demands, probably in combination with other factors like age, personality traits, and state-specific level of motivation and arousal. We also suggest methodological confounds that may cause the previous inconclusive findings.

Dynamic visual attention characteristics and their relationship to match performance in skilled basketball players

Background

Dynamic visual attention is important in basketball because it may affect the performance of players and thus the match outcome. The goals of this study were to investigate the difference in dynamic visual attention characteristics between highly skilled basketball players and nonathletic college students and to explore the relationship between visual attention and game-related performance among the basketball players.

Methods

In total, 24 highly skilled basketball players and 24 nonathletic college students participated in a multiple object tracking task. The task was conducted so that either the number of targets that were visually tracked or the speed at which a given number of tracked targets moved was altered to examine the difference in dynamic visual attention characteristics between the basketball players and nonathletic college students. The relationship between visual tracking speed (VTS) and game-related statistics, including assists, steals, mistakes, fouls and points scored recorded for every match during the season, was assessed among the basketball players by using Pearson correlations.

Results

A significant main effect of target tracking load was observed (P < 0.001), with visual tracking performance significantly decreased as target number increased. In addition, the speed at which the targets moved had a significant effect on visual tracking performance (P < 0.001), with tracking performance significantly decreased as target speed increased. However, no significant difference was observed in the abilities of basketball players and nonathletic college students to simultaneously track up to six targets. By contrast, a significant interaction between group and target speed was found (P < 0.001), with the visual tracking accuracy of basketball players significantly greater than that of college students at the higher target speeds examined (P < 0.001). Among basketball players, there were positive, large, and statistically significant correlations in the accuracy in VTS trials and the number of assists (P < 0.001) and between the accuracy in VTS trials and the number of steals (P < 0.001).

Conclusion

The advantage of skilled basketball players to handle dynamic visual information in a multiple object tracking task was not attributable to the target number but to the target speed. Those athletes with greater dynamic visual attention were more likely to successfully assist or to steal the ball, enhancing performance of the athlete as well as contributing to a more successful team match. These findings may inform basketball training programs to improve player and team performances during matches.

A Critical Review of Consumer Wearables, Mobile Applications, and Equipment for Providing Biofeedback, Monitoring Stress, and Sleep in Physically Active Populations

The commercial market for technologies to monitor and improve personal health and sports performance is ever expanding. A wide range of smart watches, bands, garments, and patches with embedded sensors, small portable devices and mobile applications now exist to record and provide users with feedback on many different physical performance variables. These variables include cardiorespiratory function, movement patterns, sweat analysis, tissue oxygenation, sleep, emotional state, and changes in cognitive function following concussion. In this review, we have summarized the features and evaluated the characteristics of a cross-section of technologies for health and sports performance according to what the technology is claimed to do, whether it has been validated and is reliable, and if it is suitable for general consumer use. Consumers who are choosing new technology should consider whether it (1) produces desirable (or non-desirable) outcomes, (2) has been developed based on real-world need, and (3) has been tested and proven effective in applied studies in different settings. Among the technologies included in this review, more than half have not been validated through independent research. Only 5% of the technologies have been formally validated. Around 10% of technologies have been developed for and used in research. The value of such technologies for consumer use is debatable, however, because they may require extra time to set up and interpret the data they produce. Looking to the future, the rapidly expanding market of health and sports performance technology has much to offer consumers. To create a competitive advantage, companies producing health and performance technologies should consult with consumers to identify real-world need, and invest in research to prove the effectiveness of their products. To get the best value, consumers should carefully select such products, not only based on their personal needs, but also according to the strength of supporting evidence and effectiveness of the products.