Collaborative Musical Creativity: How Ensembles Coordinate Spontaneity

De-sync: disruption of synchronization as a key factor in individual and collective creative processes

Creativity is a key skill for the twenty-first century, where the individual and collective imperative to adapt is omnipresent. Yet, it is still unclear how to put creativity theories into practice, which signals a lacuna in our understanding of the pragmatic means by which we get creative. This paper starts from the identification of a number of gaps in the literature. In particular, individual and group creativity are usually treated separately, and the emphasis on the search for novelty seems to overshadow the importance experts give to the disruption of their habitual patterns of behavior. To overcome these gaps, we propose foundations for a unifying framework that takes the perspective of dynamical systems. Specifically, we suggest that de-synchronization, a hallmark of disruption, is an integral part of the creative processes that operate across individual and collective levels of analysis. We show that by conjuring uncertainty, de-synchronized states provide opportunities for creative reorganization. In order to ground this framework, we survey and discuss existing literature, and focus on group improvisation practices (in particular, music and dance improvisation), where partners use the dynamics of their interaction to bring forth a collective performance in real-time. In these practices, disruption by de-synchronization, termed here as 'problematization of coordination', is a pragmatic approach used to push the creative process forward. We suggest that this approach might also be relevant in other types of individual and collective creative processes.

Music and states of consciousness: A narrative review of the broader significance of music to understanding absorption, mind wandering and creative thought

Due to music's extraordinary capacity to temporarily alter mental and physical states, the domain of musical experience offers a natural and accessible field of investigation for the study of states of consciousness. However, despite the continued emergence of music-related investigations into conscious experience, their research paradigms remain on the fringes of consciousness research, with the broader significance of their contributions often overlooked. In this narrative review, we aimed to address this gap by offering a twofold contribution. Firstly, we have highlighted and critically assessed key contributions of empirical research in music psychology and music neuroscience to our understanding of non-ordinary states of consciousness, such as absorption, mind wandering and creative thought, emphasizing the broader significance of exploring consciousness through music. Secondly, we have identified the unique aspects of music that offer special insight into consciousness and discussed how these aspects can shape future investigations. Overall, our review underscores the importance of integrating music into consciousness research and highlights avenues for future exploration in this interdisciplinary field.

The rhythmic mind: brain functions of percussionists in improvisation

Introduction

Percussionists stand out for their expertise in rhythm, with the network for musical rhythm (NMR) serving a vital neurological function in their improvisation, which is deeply rooted in comprehensive musical knowledge. Our research examines the central representations of various improvisation tactics used by percussionists and investigates the interactions between the NMR and other relevant neural networks.

Methods

Twenty-five percussionists participated in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) sessions, which included two cognitive strategies of improvisation. Structural improvisation (SIMP) emphasized rhythmic patterns, while free improvisation (FIMP) focused on musical spontaneity. Sight-reading scenario served as the reference condition. Paired t-tests were utilized for comparative analyses.

Results

The findings revealed a dynamic interplay characterized by increased activity in the executive control network and NMR, along with decreased activity in the default mode network during SIMP. During FIMP, heightened activity was observed in the executive control network, NMR, limbic, and memory systems. In both SIMP vs. sight-reading and FIMP vs. sight-reading comparisons, the visual network's activity decreased, a trend also observed in the comparative analysis of FIMP vs. SIMP.

Discussion

In SIMP, percussionists leverage external rhythmic signals, resulting in heightened NMR and ECN activity and reduced DMN activity. In contrast, FIMP is characterized by a rise in activity within the NMR, ECN, limbic system, memory system, and reward system, underscoring the vital roles of motivation and memory in the rapid production of spontaneous musical ideas within set frameworks. The diminished activity in the visual network during FIMP compared to SIMP suggests less reliance on visual stimuli in FIMP. These findings suggest that various improvisational tactics may engage different neural pathways.

Interaction of motor practice and memory training in expressive piano performance: expanding the possibilities of improvisation

This paper aimed to investigate the influence of motor practice and music performance experiences on musicians' auditory memory, the effect of auditory distinctiveness on melody recognition, and the differences in the working memory of classical and jazz pianists. The study was conducted among 26 jazz and 24 classical music students at Shenyang Conservatory of Music. To achieve the goal set, a melody recognition ability was analyzed after listening, performing without sound, and simultaneous listening and performing using computer recordings and pianist-taken notes. The study was conducted following repeated measures mixed design. The within-group variable was the learning condition. As the within-participant variable, the number of melody practicing trials was chosen. The type of influence on auditory memory was chosen as a between-group variable. The dependent variables were auditory recognition score, motor imagery ability, and auditory imagery ability. Students' recognition of the heard melodies was assessed by means of a 3-point Likert scale. Pearson's correlation coefficient was calculated to investigate the relationship between working memory and other student characteristics. The study outcomes unveiled that pianists are much better at recognizing tunes they generate themselves in auditory-motor practice than auditory practice alone. It was pointed out that the ability to recognize melody in auditory-motor learning is influenced by its acoustic characteristics. Hence, melodies that are slow in tempo and regular in time and intensity are easier to recognize than more variable pieces.

Hyper-brain hyper-frequency network topology dynamics when playing guitar in quartet

Ensemble music performance is a highly coordinated form of social behavior requiring not only precise motor actions but also synchronization of different neural processes both within and between the brains of ensemble players. In previous analyses, which were restricted to within-frequency coupling (WFC), we showed that different frequencies participate in intra- and inter-brain coordination, exhibiting distinct network topology dynamics that underlie coordinated actions and interactions. However, many of the couplings both within and between brains are likely to operate across frequencies. Hence, to obtain a more complete picture of hyper-brain interaction when musicians play the guitar in a quartet, cross-frequency coupling (CFC) has to be considered as well. Furthermore, WFC and CFC can be used to construct hyper-brain hyper-frequency networks (HB-HFNs) integrating all the information flows between different oscillation frequencies, providing important details about ensemble interaction in terms of network topology dynamics (NTD). Here, we reanalyzed EEG (electroencephalogram) data obtained from four guitarists playing together in quartet to explore changes in HB-HFN topology dynamics and their relation to acoustic signals of the music. Our findings demonstrate that low-frequency oscillations (e.g., delta, theta, and alpha) play an integrative or pacemaker role in such complex networks and that HFN topology dynamics are specifically related to the guitar quartet playing dynamics assessed by sound properties. Simulations by link removal showed that the HB-HFN is relatively robust against loss of connections, especially when the strongest connections are preserved and when the loss of connections only affects the brain of one guitarist. We conclude that HB-HFNs capture neural mechanisms that support interpersonally coordinated action and behavioral synchrony.

An observation of a negative effect of social cohesion on creativity in musical improvisation

Although various social factors can significantly impact creative performance, it is still unclear how social cohesion (i.e., how close we feel to others) influences creativity. We therefore conducted two studies exploring the association between social cohesion and creativity within the domain of musical improvisation, a prime example of creative performance, which usually plays out in social contexts. The first study (n = 58 musical novices) showed that music-induced synchrony facilitates social cohesion. In our second study (n = 18 musical novices), we found that in two out of three experimental conditions, increased social cohesion is associated with less creative musical outcomes, as rated by nine expert musicians. In our subsequent analysis we related measures of social cohesion and creativity. This approach highlights how, within a musical setting, creativity unfolds in the context of social contingencies as social cohesion and related factors.

Social and nonlinear dynamics unite: musical group synchrony

Synchronization, the human tendency to align behaviors in time with others, is necessary for many survival skills. The ability to synchronize actions with rhythmic (predictable) sound patterns is especially well developed in music making. Recent models of synchrony in musical ensembles rely on pairwise comparisons between group members. This pairwise approach to synchrony has hampered theory development, given current findings from social dynamics indicating shifts in members' influence within larger groups. We draw on social theory and nonlinear dynamics to argue that emergent properties and novel roles arise in musical group synchrony that differ from individual or pairwise behaviors. This transformational shift in defining synchrony sheds light on successful outcomes as well as on disruptions that cause negative behavioral outcomes.

Audience synchronies in live concerts illustrate the embodiment of music experience

A study of 132 audience members of three classical public concerts (all three staged the same chamber music pieces by Ludwig van Beethoven, Brett Dean, and Johannes Brahms) had the goal of analyzing the physiological and motor responses of audiences. It was assumed that the music would induce synchronous physiology and movement in listeners (induction synchrony). In addition to hypothesizing that such synchronies would be present, we expected that they were linked to participants' aesthetic experiences, their affect and personality traits, which were assessed by questionnaires before and after the concerts. Clear evidence was found of physiological synchrony (heart rate, respiration rate, skin conductance response) as well as movement synchrony of the audiences, whereas breathing behavior was not synchronized. Thus the audiences of the three concerts resonated with the music, their music perception was embodied. There were links between the bodily synchrony and aesthetic experiences: synchrony, especially heart-rate synchrony, was higher when listeners felt moved emotionally and inspired by a piece, and were immersed in the music. Personality traits were also associated with the individual contributions to induction synchrony.

Processes and Experiences of Creative Cognition in Seven Western Classical Composers

In a qualitative study, we explored the range of reflections and experiences involved in the composition of score-based music by administering a 15-item, open-ended, questionnaire to seven professional composers from Europe and North America. Adopting a grounded theory approach, we organized six different codes emerging from our data into two higher-order categories (the act of composing and establishing relationships). Our content analysis, inspired by the theoretical resources of 4E cognitive science, points to three overlapping characteristics of creative cognition in music composition: it is largely exploratory, it is grounded in bodily experience, and it emerges from the recursive dialogue of agents and their environment. More generally, such preliminary findings suggest that musical creativity may be advantageously understood as a process of constant adaptation - one in which composers enact their musical styles and identities by exploring novel interactivities hidden in their contingent and historical milieux.

Creative Togetherness. A Joint-Methods Analysis of Collaborative Artistic Performance

In the present study, we combined first-, second-, and third-person levels of analysis to explore the feeling of being and acting together in the context of collaborative artistic performance. Following participation in an international competition held in Czech Republic in 2018, a team of ten artistic swimmers took part in the study. First, a self-assessment instrument was administered to rate the different aspects of togetherness emerging from their collective activity; second, interviews based on video recordings of their performance were conducted individually with all team members; and third, the performance was evaluated by external artistic swimming experts. By combining these levels of analysis in different ways, we explore how changes in togetherness and lived experience in individual behavior may shape, disrupt, and (re-)stabilize joint performance. Our findings suggest that the experience of being and acting together is transient and changing, often alternating phases of decrease and increase in felt togetherness that can be consistently recognized by swimmers and external raters.

Taqsīm as a Creative Musical Process in Arabic Music

Creativity plays a major role in various musical contexts including composition, performance and education. Although numerous studies have revealed how creativity is involved in processes of listening, improvising and composing, relatively little is known about the particularities of transcultural creative processes in music. In this article, we aim to shed light on the creative musical processes underlying taqsīm performance in Arabic music. To that end, qualitative interviews have been conducted with three Berlin-based oud players from Syria. Results of a thematic content analysis show that taqsīm encompasses multiple components (e.g., a flexible form and dependency on maqam as well as tonal music) and serves various functions such as developing artistic individuality. Moreover, taqsīm is affected by interactions between tradition and novelty. We discuss the interview data within the cross-cultural experiential model of musical creativity developed by Hill (2018), offering a fresh approach to studying taqsīm which goes beyond established concepts such as the improvisation-composition continuum.

A Space for Collaborative Creativity. How Collective Improvising Shapes 'a Sense of Belonging'

In this contribution, we draw on findings from a non-formal, community music project to elaborate on the relationship between the concept of eudaimonia, as defined by Seligman, the interactive dimensions of collective free improvisation, and the concept of collaborative creativity. The project revolves around The Ostend Street Orkestra (TOSO), a music ensemble within which homeless adults and individuals with a psychiatric or alcohol/drug related background engage in collective musical improvisation. Between 2017 and 2019 data was collected through open interviews and video recordings of rehearsals and performances. Participant data was analyzed through inductive analysis based on the principles of grounded theory. One interesting finding was the discrepancy in the participant interviews between social relationships indicative of a negative affect about social group interaction versus strong feelings of group coherence and belonging. Video recordings of performances and rehearsals showed clear enjoyment and pleasure while playing music. Alongside verbal reflection through one-on-one interviews video recordings and analysis of moment-to moment observations should be used, in order to capture the complexity of community music projects with homeless people. The initial open coding was aligned with the five elements of the PERMA model. Overall, we observed more focus on Relationship (sense of belonging), Engagement (flow in rehearsals and performances) and Meaning (belonging to something greater than yourself) and less on Positive Emotion and Accomplishment (goal setting).

The Interplay Between Chamber Musicians During Two Public Performances of the Same Piece: A Novel Methodology Using the Concept of "Flow"

The purpose of the study is to explore a new research methodology that will improve our understanding of “flow” through indicators of physiological and qualitative state. We examine indicators of “flow” experienced by musicians of a youth string quartet, two women (25, 29) and two men (23, 24). Electrocardiogram (ECG) equipment was used to record heart rate variability (HRV) data throughout the four movements in one and the same quartet performed during two concerts. Individual physiological indicators of flow were supplemented by assessments of group “state flow” (means from standardized questionnaires) and a group interview in which the musicians provided qualitative data. A matrix was constructed for the characterization of different kinds of demands in the written music in each one of the four movements for each one of the musicians. HRV derived from ECG data showed non-significant trends for group state flow across the eight musical episodes. Individual-level analysis showed that compared to the other players the first violin player had the highest mean heart rate and the lowest increase in high frequency (HF) power in HRV during this particular movement, particularly during the second concert. The qualitative data illustrated how an interplay of synchronized social interactions between this player and their colleagues during the musical performance was associated with a feeling of group state flow and served to support the first violinist. The case illustrates that the proposed mixed methodology drawing on physiological and qualitative data, has the potential to provide meaningful information about experiences of a flow state, both at individual and group levels. Applications in future research are possible.

Dimensions of Musical Creativity

Current literature on creative cognition has developed rich conceptual landscapes dedicated to the analysis of both individual and collective forms of creativity. This work has favored the emergence of unifying theories on domain-general creative abilities in which the main experiential, behavioral, computational, and neural aspects involved in everyday creativity are examined and discussed. But while such accounts have gained important analytical leverage for describing the overall conditions and mechanisms through which creativity emerges and operates, they necessarily leave contextual forms of creativity less explored. Among the latter, musical practices have recently drawn the attention of scholars interested in its creative properties as well as in the creative potential of those who engage with them. In the present article, we compare previously posed theories of creativity in musical and non-musical domains to lay the basis of a conceptual framework that mitigates the tension between (i) individual and collective and (ii) domain-general and domain-specific perspectives on creativity. In doing so, we draw from a range of scholarship in music and enactive cognitive science, and propose that creative cognition may be best understood as a process of skillful organism-environment adaptation that one cultivates endlessly. With its focus on embodiment, plurality, and adaptiveness, our account points to a structured unity between living systems and their world, disclosing a variety of novel analytical resources for research and theory across different dimensions of (musical) creativity.

Eye gaze as a means of giving and seeking information during musical interaction

During skilled music ensemble performance, a multi-layered network of interaction processes allows musicians to negotiate common interpretations of ambiguously-notated music in real-time. This study investigated the conditions that encourage visual interaction during duo performance. Duos recorded performances of a new piece before and after a period of rehearsal. Mobile eye tracking and motion capture were used in combination to map uni- and bidirectional eye gaze patterns. Musicians watched each other more during temporally-unstable passages than during regularly-timed passages. They also watched each other more after rehearsal than before. Duo musicians may seek visual interaction with each other primarily, but not exclusively, when coordination is threatened by temporal instability. Visual interaction increases as musicians become familiar with the piece, suggesting that they visually monitor each other once a shared interpretation of the piece is established. Visual monitoring of co-performers' movements and attention may facilitate feelings of engagement and high-level creative collaboration.