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Larrigaldie I, Damon F, Mousqué S, Patris B, Lansade L, Schaal B, Destrez A. Do sheep (Ovis aries) discriminate human emotional odors? Anim Cogn 2024; 27:51. [PMID: 39060454 PMCID: PMC11282138 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-024-01895-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2024] [Revised: 07/15/2024] [Accepted: 07/16/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024]
Abstract
While sheep can detect and discriminate human emotions through visual and vocal cues, their reaction to human body odors remains unknown. The present study aimed to determine whether sheep (Ovis aries) can detect human odors, olfactorily discriminate stressed from non-stressed individuals, and behave accordingly based on the emotional valence of the odors. Axillary secretions from 34 students were collected following an oral examination (stress odor) or a regular class (non-stress odor). Fourteen female and 15 male lambs were then exposed to these odors through a habituation-dishabituation procedure. The habituation stimulus was presented four times for one minute, followed by the dishabituation stimulus presented once for one minute. Behavioral variables included spatiality relative to target odors, approach/withdrawal, ear positioning, sniffing, ingestion, and vocalization. Both female and male lambs more often positioned their ears backwards/forwards, and asymmetrically when exposed to the dishabituation stimulus, but regardless of their stress or non-stress value. They also changed their approach behavior when exposed to the dishabituation stimuli. Lambs displayed some behavioral signs of discrimination between the habituation and dishabituation odors, but regardless of their relation to stress or non-stress of human donors. In sum, this exploratory study suggests that young sheep respond negatively to the odor of unfamiliar humans, without showing any specific emotional contagion related to the stress odor. This exploratory study suggests young ovines can detect human body odor, a further step toward understanding the human-sheep relationship.
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Affiliation(s)
- Izïa Larrigaldie
- Development of Olfaction in Cognition and Communication Lab, Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, CNRS, Université Bourgogne, Institut Agro Dijon, Dijon, France.
| | - Fabrice Damon
- Development of Olfaction in Cognition and Communication Lab, Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, CNRS, Université Bourgogne, Institut Agro Dijon, Dijon, France
| | - Solène Mousqué
- Development of Olfaction in Cognition and Communication Lab, Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, CNRS, Université Bourgogne, Institut Agro Dijon, Dijon, France
- Institut Agro Dijon, Dijon, France
| | - Bruno Patris
- Development of Olfaction in Cognition and Communication Lab, Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, CNRS, Université Bourgogne, Institut Agro Dijon, Dijon, France
| | - Léa Lansade
- Unité de Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, IFCE, Inrae, CNRS, Université de Tours, Nouzilly, France
| | - Benoist Schaal
- Development of Olfaction in Cognition and Communication Lab, Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, CNRS, Université Bourgogne, Institut Agro Dijon, Dijon, France
| | - Alexandra Destrez
- Development of Olfaction in Cognition and Communication Lab, Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, CNRS, Université Bourgogne, Institut Agro Dijon, Dijon, France
- Institut Agro Dijon, Dijon, France
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Croijmans I, van Erp L, Bakker A, Cramer L, Heezen S, Van Mourik D, Weaver S, Hortensius R. No Evidence for an Effect of the Smell of Hexanal on Trust in Human-Robot Interaction. Int J Soc Robot 2022; 15:1-10. [PMID: 36128582 PMCID: PMC9477175 DOI: 10.1007/s12369-022-00918-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The level of interpersonal trust among people is partially determined through the sense of smell. Hexanal, a molecule which smell resembles freshly cut grass, can increase trust in people. Here, we ask the question if smell can be leveraged to facilitate human-robot interaction and test whether hexanal also increases the level of trust during collaboration with a social robot. In a preregistered double-blind, placebo-controlled study, we tested if trial-by-trial and general trust during perceptual decision making in collaboration with a social robot is affected by hexanal across two samples (n = 46 and n = 44). It was hypothesized that unmasked hexanal and hexanal masked by eugenol, a molecule with a smell resembling clove, would increase the level of trust in human-robot interaction, compared to eugenol alone or a control condition consisting of only the neutral smelling solvent propylene glycol. Contrasting previous findings in human interaction, no significant effect of unmasked or eugenol-masked hexanal on trust in robots was observed. These findings indicate that the conscious or nonconscious impact of smell on trust might not generalise to interactions with social robots. One explanation could be category- and context-dependency of smell leading to a mismatch between the natural smell of hexanal, a smell also occurring in human sweat, and the mechanical physical or mental representation of the robot.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilja Croijmans
- Centre for
Language Studies, Radboud
University, Erasmusplein 1, 6525 HT Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Laura van Erp
- Centre for
Language Studies, Radboud
University, Erasmusplein 1, 6525 HT Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Annelie Bakker
- Centre for
Language Studies, Radboud
University, Erasmusplein 1, 6525 HT Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Lara Cramer
- Centre for
Language Studies, Radboud
University, Erasmusplein 1, 6525 HT Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Sophie Heezen
- Centre for
Language Studies, Radboud
University, Erasmusplein 1, 6525 HT Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Dana Van Mourik
- Centre for
Language Studies, Radboud
University, Erasmusplein 1, 6525 HT Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Sterre Weaver
- Centre for
Language Studies, Radboud
University, Erasmusplein 1, 6525 HT Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Ruud Hortensius
- Centre for
Language Studies, Radboud
University, Erasmusplein 1, 6525 HT Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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Kohn SC, de Visser EJ, Wiese E, Lee YC, Shaw TH. Measurement of Trust in Automation: A Narrative Review and Reference Guide. Front Psychol 2021; 12:604977. [PMID: 34737716 PMCID: PMC8562383 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.604977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
With the rise of automated and autonomous agents, research examining Trust in Automation (TiA) has attracted considerable attention over the last few decades. Trust is a rich and complex construct which has sparked a multitude of measures and approaches to study and understand it. This comprehensive narrative review addresses known methods that have been used to capture TiA. We examined measurements deployed in existing empirical works, categorized those measures into self-report, behavioral, and physiological indices, and examined them within the context of an existing model of trust. The resulting work provides a reference guide for researchers, providing a list of available TiA measurement methods along with the model-derived constructs that they capture including judgments of trustworthiness, trust attitudes, and trusting behaviors. The article concludes with recommendations on how to improve the current state of TiA measurement.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ewart J de Visser
- Warfighter Effectiveness Research Center, United States Air Force Academy, Colorado Springs, CO, United States
| | - Eva Wiese
- George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, United States
| | - Yi-Ching Lee
- George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, United States
| | - Tyler H Shaw
- George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, United States
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Damon F, Mezrai N, Magnier L, Leleu A, Durand K, Schaal B. Olfaction in the Multisensory Processing of Faces: A Narrative Review of the Influence of Human Body Odors. Front Psychol 2021; 12:750944. [PMID: 34675855 PMCID: PMC8523678 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.750944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
A recent body of research has emerged regarding the interactions between olfaction and other sensory channels to process social information. The current review examines the influence of body odors on face perception, a core component of human social cognition. First, we review studies reporting how body odors interact with the perception of invariant facial information (i.e., identity, sex, attractiveness, trustworthiness, and dominance). Although we mainly focus on the influence of body odors based on axillary odor, we also review findings about specific steroids present in axillary sweat (i.e., androstenone, androstenol, androstadienone, and estratetraenol). We next survey the literature showing body odor influences on the perception of transient face properties, notably in discussing the role of body odors in facilitating or hindering the perception of emotional facial expression, in relation to competing frameworks of emotions. Finally, we discuss the developmental origins of these olfaction-to-vision influences, as an emerging literature indicates that odor cues strongly influence face perception in infants. Body odors with a high social relevance such as the odor emanating from the mother have a widespread influence on various aspects of face perception in infancy, including categorization of faces among other objects, face scanning behavior, or facial expression perception. We conclude by suggesting that the weight of olfaction might be especially strong in infancy, shaping social perception, especially in slow-maturing senses such as vision, and that this early tutoring function of olfaction spans all developmental stages to disambiguate a complex social environment by conveying key information for social interactions until adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabrice Damon
- Developmental Ethology and Cognitive Psychology Laboratory, Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l’Alimentation, Inrae, AgroSup Dijon, CNRS (UMR 6265), Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
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Abstract
BACKGROUND: Scents may influence the perceived comfort of an environment. There are only a few studies conducted on the relationship between scent and comfort in aircraft cabin. OBJECTIVES: The goal of this research is to explore whether relationships between scents and perceived comfort can be found for passengers in an aircraft cabin. METHODS: 276 participants joined an experiment in a Boeing 737 fuselage. The participants were divided into nine groups and each joined a session for 60 minutes with the exposure to different scents. The effect of the odor was measured by a set of questionnaires at the beginning and at the end of the session. Results of questionnaires were analyzed regarding the effects on the completion time, of the type of scents, of the intensity of the scent and on gender. RESULTS: Significant differences were found at the beginning and at the end of the experiment regarding comfort and emotion, but sometimes no relations could be established. The influence of different scents on comfort/discomfort varied and changed over time. However, in all scenarios, participant’ scores on emotion decreased. Additionally, the added scents influenced the linearity between the changes in comfort and discomfort. CONCLUSIONS: Smell could influence the perceived comfort/discomfort of aircraft passengers over time, and different types of smells have different effects on passengers. The preferences on scents are diverse, which highlights the need for personalization in aircraft cabin design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinhe Yao
- Faculty of Industrial Design Engineering, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands
| | - Yu Song
- Faculty of Industrial Design Engineering, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands
| | - Peter Vink
- Faculty of Industrial Design Engineering, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands
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de Groot JHB, Beetsma DJV, van Aerts TJA, le Berre E, Gallagher D, Shaw E, Aarts H, Smeets MAM. From sterile labs to rich VR: Immersive multisensory context critical for odors to induce motivated cleaning behavior. Behav Res Methods 2020; 52:1657-1670. [PMID: 31965478 PMCID: PMC7406481 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-019-01341-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Extending traditional research methods for studying the effects of odor on behavior, this study applied virtual reality (VR) to create a real-world, immersive context that was compared with a traditional sterile, non-immersive lab setting. Using precise odor administration with olfactometry, participants were exposed to three odors (cleaning-related pleasant smell, cleaning-unrelated pleasant smell: vanillin, and odorless air). Our aim was to tease apart whether participants' motivation to clean was driven by cleaning associations and/or odor pleasantness, and how context would accentuate these effects. The results indeed showed that, in VR only, the cleaning-related smell elicited faster and more energetic cleaning behavior on a custom-designed cleaning task, and faster and more voluminous olfactory sampling compared with controls (vanillin, air). These effects were not driven by odor valence, given the general absence of significant differences between the pleasant control odor vanillin and odorless air. In sum, combining rigorous experimental control with high ecological validity, this research shows the context dependency of (congruent) odors affecting motivated behavior in an immersive context only.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasper H B de Groot
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, PO Box 80140, 3508 TC, Utrecht, the Netherlands.
- Department of Neurology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
| | - Daniel J V Beetsma
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, PO Box 80140, 3508 TC, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Theo J A van Aerts
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, PO Box 80140, 3508 TC, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | | | | | | | - Henk Aarts
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, PO Box 80140, 3508 TC, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Monique A M Smeets
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, PO Box 80140, 3508 TC, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- Unilever R&D, Vlaardingen, the Netherlands
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Lobmaier JS, Probst F, Fischbacher U, Wirthmüller U, Knoch D. Pleasant body odours, but not genetic similarity, influence trustworthiness in a modified trust game. Sci Rep 2020; 10:3388. [PMID: 32099082 PMCID: PMC7042344 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-60407-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2019] [Accepted: 02/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Identifying trustworthy partners is an important adaptive challenge for establishing mutually cooperative relationships. Previous studies have demonstrated a marked relationship between a person's attractiveness and his apparent trustworthiness (beauty premium). Kin selection theory, however, suggests that cues to kinship enhance trustworthiness. Here we directly tested predictions of the beauty premium and kin selection theory by using body odours as cues to trustworthiness. Body odours reportedly portray information about an individuals' genotype at the human leucocyte antigen system (HLA) and thus olfactory cues in body odours serve as a promising means for kin recognition. Ninety men played trust games in which they divided uneven sums of monetary units between two male trustees represented by their body odour and rated each body odour for pleasantness. Half of the odours came from HLA-similar men (suggesting closer kin) and half from HLA dissimilar men (suggesting non-kin). We found that the amount of money the players transferred was not related to HLA-similarity, but to the pleasantness of the trustee's body odour. By showing that people with more pleasant body odours are trusted more than people with unpleasant body odour we provide evidence for a "beauty-premium" that overrides any putative effect of kin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janek S Lobmaier
- Department of Social Neuroscience and Social Psychology, Institute of Psychology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Fabian Probst
- Department of Social Neuroscience and Social Psychology, Institute of Psychology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Urs Fischbacher
- Department of Economics, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
- Thurgau Institute of Economics, Kreuzlingen, Switzerland
| | - Urs Wirthmüller
- Universitätsinstitut für Klinische Chemie, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Daria Knoch
- Department of Social Neuroscience and Social Psychology, Institute of Psychology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.
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