The Effect of an Enriched Sport Program on Children's Executive Functions: The ESA Program

Effect of COGNI-MACHINE computational thinking training on executive functions in children aged 9 to 11: Protocol of a cluster randomized controlled trial

We designed a controlled trial protocol that seeks to contribute to cognitive science by studying the effect of thought training on children's executive functions. The study design is a cluster randomized controlled trial, with intra-subject and inter-subject evaluation, with two parallel groups: an experimental group and a TAU control group. With three measures, pre-test, post-test, and follow-up after three months. The participants will be children aged 9 to 11. The allocation will be randomized by groups and not individually. The sample will be a minimum of 44 participants. The primary measures will be neuropsychological tests to assess executive functions. Secondary measures will be a computational thinking test, neuropsychological tests to assess metacognition and attention, and an acceptability scale. The experimental group will participate in the COGNI-MACHINE computational thinking training designed by the first author. The training frequency will be twice a week in 60 min sessions for 12 weeks. The TAU control group will receive computer science classes as usual during the same time as the experimental group. The evaluators taking the measurements will be blinded to the assignment. The investigators in charge of the intervention will be blinded to the results of the evaluations.

Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task and EF in two samples of adolescents in Brazil and United States

Executive function (EF) is a foundational cognitive construct, which is linked to better cognitive and physical health throughout development. The present study examines the construct validity of an EF task, the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task (HTKS) that was initially developed for young children, in a sample of adolescents. We investigate the initial validity and range in scores between 54 adolescents from Brazil (mean age 12.58) and 56 US adolescents (mean age 12.48) from different socioeconomic contexts. Results indicated that the HTKS showed sufficient variability in both samples, especially for a measure of HTKS efficiency (completion time divided by the total score). The US sample performed better on all cognitive measures. For the Brazilian sample, regression models controlling for age and sex showed a significant relationship between the digit span working memory task, the HTKS total score, and the HTKS efficiency score. The Heart and Flowers cognitive flexibility measure was also included as an independent variable only for the Brazil sample, showing a significant relationship with both HTKS scores. For the US sample, results showed that only the HTKS efficiency score was significantly related to the digit span working memory task. This study highlights the importance of cognitive efficiency measures to achieve greater validity, as they can assess a broader range of performance with different populations. The HTKS showed good ecological validity with two adolescent samples, as it differentiated between populations with high and low socioeconomic status from different cultural contexts.

Acute Effects of Exergaming on Students' Executive Functions and Situational Interest in Elementary Physical Education

Two studies were conducted to examine the acute effects of exergaming on students' executive functions and to explore their situational interest regarding these games in elementary physical education. The first study involved a two-group, repeated measures, cross-over quasi-experimental design. Participants were 74 (36 boys) fourth- and fifth-grade students who were assigned to the experimental (38 students) and the waiting list control (36 students) group. The single physical education session with exergames was first implemented with the initial experimental group and after the post-test, the waiting list control group received the intervention. In the second study, a pre-test post-test, within-subjects design was involved with the experimental group students (48 fourth- and fifth-grade students, 27 boys) who participated in a booster single physical education session with exergames two months after their involvement in a four-week intervention with cognitively challenging physical activity games. Both studies involved pre- and post-intervention measures for executive functions using the design fluency test and a post-test measure for situational interest. During the acute session, students had to follow the movements of an on-screen dancing character in time to a chosen song of the Just Dance 2015 exergame. The results of the first study showed that experimental group students improved significantly from pre- to post-test their scores in design fluency and in cognitive flexibility and in the total score of the design fluency test and their improvements were higher compared to the waiting list control group. The waiting list control group students, after receiving the acute session with exergames, significantly improved their scores in design fluency, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility and in the total score of the design fluency test compared to their pre-intervention scores. Moreover, the second study showed that students' total score in the design fluency test improved significantly from pre- to post-intervention. In both studies, students reported generally high scores in all subscales of the situational interest questionnaire. These results suggested that an acute exergame-based physical education session attracted students' interest and positively triggered their executive functions.

Effects of physical activity on visuospatial working memory in healthy individuals: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Introduction

Physical activity interventions improve cognitive performance, especially visuospatial working memory (VSWM). However, evidence on the effects of these interventions in children, adolescents, and older adults remains scant. This meta-analysis aimed to identify the effects of physical activity on VSWM improvement in healthy individuals and the best exercise intervention program to improve VSWM capacity.

Methods

We searched for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of exercise interventions targeting VSWM in healthy individuals from Web of Science, MEDLINE, BIOSIS Previews, PubMed, China National Knowledge Infrastructure, and Wanfang Data (Chinese) databases, from inception to August 20, 2022.

Results

Among 21 articles (1,595 healthy participants), the heterogeneity test statistic was I2 = 32.3%, p = 0.053. The mean quality scores of the included articles were 6.9 points (reaction time [RT] studies) and 7.5 points (Score studies). Moreover, 28 RCTs were included (10 RT studies and 18 Score studies), and the subgroup analysis found significant effects for elderly participants, children, interventions involving a higher level of cognitive engagement, low and moderate exercise intensity, chronic exercise, exercise duration ≥60 min, and exercise period ≥90 days. Physical activity had a small but significant positive impact on VSWM in healthy individuals. Current evidence confirms the effects of physical activity on VSWM capacity only in children and seniors but not in young adults. Other age groups, including adolescents and middle-aged adults, have not been studied. Prescription of interventions involving high-level cognitive engagement, low and moderate exercise intensity, chronic exercise, exercise for >30 min per session, and exercise for more than 3 months is recommended for children and seniors.

Discussion

Future RCTs would be to fill the gap in studies on adolescents and middle-aged adults, and report detailed exercise intervention programs about different age groups.Systematic Review Registration: PROSPERO (https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?ID=CRD42022354737). INPLASY (https://doi.org/10.37766/inplasy2022.8.0053).

Sport Participation and Academic Performance in Young Elite Athletes

Strong evidence supports physical activity and fitness levels being positively associated with cognitive performance and overall academic performance in youth. This also applies to sports participation. However, whether participation in sports at the elite level is associated with greater academic performance remains unknown. Thus, the present study aimed to compare the academic performance of young elite athletes to that of control students, as well as to analyze whether the type of sport mediates these results. Between 2010 and 2019, all students from the last Baccalaureate course of the Spanish Elite Sport High School-which also includes non-elite athletes and recreational athlete students, who were categorized as controls-participated in this study. Academic performance was assessed through both the grade point average of the two last Baccalaureate courses and through the average grades from the University Entrance Examinations. Athletes were categorized attending to different sport classifications. A total of 1126 adolescents (570 girls, 18.2 ± 0.6 years) participated in the study, of which 483 and 643 were categorized as elite athletes and control students, respectively. Elite athletes attained a lower overall academic performance than controls (p < 0.001), which was confirmed for both sexes (p < 0.001). These differences were separately confirmed for most academic subjects (p < 0.05), as well as when attending to different sport classifications (all p > 0.05). Young elite athletes attained a lower academic performance than their non-elite peers, regardless of their type of sport. These findings highlight the importance of programs aimed at facilitating dual careers among young elite athletes.

The Effects of a Cognitively Challenging Physical Activity Intervention on School Children's Executive Functions and Motivational Regulations

This study examined the effects of a physical education intervention consisting of cognitively challenging physical activity games on school children's executive functions and motivational regulations. Ninety-nine fourth- and fifth-grade children participated in this two-group, repeated measures, quasi-experimental study with a cross-over design. Children's executive functions (measured with the design fluency and Stroop and flanker tests) and motivational regulations were measured pre- and post-intervention and one month later. At post-test, the experimental group children outperformed the waiting-list control group children in all design fluency test conditions and accuracy in the Stroop and flanker tests. Both groups improved from pre- to post-intervention their speed (reaction time) in the Stroop and flanker tests. The waiting-list control group children, after receiving the intervention, improved their performance in the executive function tests except for Stroop test accuracy and flanker test speed. The positive effects were reduced significantly one month after the end of the intervention but remained significantly higher compared to pre-intervention. No intervention effects were found for the motivational regulations. These results showed that the intervention had positive effects on children's executive functions and supported the new shift of designing physical activity programs for developing combinedly children's physical and cognitive development.

Anthropometric Parameters, Physical Activity, Physical Fitness, and Executive Functions among Primary School Children

Physical activity during childhood and adolescence favors brain development and cognitive functioning, particularly the executive functions. This study aimed to assess potential associations between anthropometric parameters, physical activity, physical fitness, and executive functions among elementary school children returning to school after the COVID-19 lockdown in Chile. School-age male and female participants (n = 90; age, 10−12 years) participated in the study. To determine the association between variables, a multivariable linear regression analysis was performed. Higher fat-related anthropometric indexes were associated with lower working memory, cognitive flexibility, planning, and attention (r = −0.55 to −0.22; p = 0.031 to <0.001). In contrast, higher physical activity levels, better sprint performance, higher lower-body muscular power, and greater upper-body muscular strength were associated with better working memory, cognitive flexibility, inhibition, planning, and/or attention (r = 0.19 to −0.54; p = 0.04 to <0.001). Current results consistently suggest the need for adequate levels of physical activity, physical fitness, and anthropometric parameters among the school-age population to promote healthy and adequate executive functions.

Physical Illiteracy and Obesity Barrier: How Physical Education Can Overpass Potential Adverse Effects? A Narrative Review

Environments lacking in stimuli together with ineffective physical education programs can lead to motor illiteracy, causing several adverse effects that could be worsened by unhealthy weight conditions (e.g., obesity). Obesity can be seen as an actual barrier for children and adolescents, especially for affective, behavioral, physical, and cognitive domains. In this context, condensing what the literature proposes could be useful in order to improve the understanding of the best intervention strategies (i.e., proper physical education programs) to manage the adverse effects of motor illiteracy in relation to the obesity barrier. The purpose of this narrative review is to improve the understanding on how physical education programs can counteract the adverse effects of physical illiteracy and obesity barrier across childhood and adolescence. Proper physical education programs should develop motor competence by fostering an individual’s awareness, self-perception, autonomous motivation, and muscular fitness on a realistic scenario (functional task difficulty related to his/her possibilities) in the attempt to counteract the adverse effects of the obesity barrier. Such programs should be designed without overlooking a proper multi teaching style approach.

Cognitive and Physical Activity-Related Aspects of Children Associated to the Performance of the Crunning Movement

The aim of this investigation was to identify possible related factors associated to the performance of the crunning test in European children and adolescents. A total number of 559 children and adolescents (age range 6-14 years) of which 308 boys (55.1%) and 251 girls (44.9%), from seven European countries, were screened. A questionnaire concerning demographic and personal life-related factors and a cognitive assessment were performed. A regression analysis was conducted with the performance measures of the crunning movement. T-tests and ANCOVA were used to analyze sub-group differences. Boys have greater crunning performance values compared to girls (5.55 s vs. 7.06 s, p < 0.001) and older children perform better than younger ones (R2 -0.23; p < 0.001). Children with healthy and active habits (exercising or spending time with family members vs. reading or surfing the internet) performed better in the test. Children engaged in team sports had better crunning performances compared to those engaged in individual sports (6.01 s vs. 6.66 s, p = 0.0166). No significant association was found regarding cognitive-related aspects in either children engaged in team or individual sports and the crunning performance. Older and male children performed better in the crunning test than younger and female children. Physical activity-related aspects of children's life are associated with crunning movement performance. No association was found between higher cognitive performance and the crunning test results.

The Influence of an Enriched Sport Program on Children's Sport Motivation in the School Context: The ESA PROGRAM

Purpose

Besides the evident positive effect on body development, physical activity has proven to boost executive functions, especially if the exercises are enriched with cognitive stimuli. Previous studies have shown that introducing challenging exercises in the physical activity routine can also enhance motivation. Therefore, enriching a physical education program with cognitively challenging exercises may also foster children’s motivation during physical education classes, where the motivation is high at the beginning of the school year and low at the end of it. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to test if a sport program enriched by cognitive stimuli may improve kids’ motivation or take them out from a state of amotivation along the school year.

Methods

A sample of 342 school children (203 boys, 139 girls) took part in the study. Participants were asked to complete a battery of motivation and perceived social support questionnaires before and after they completed the ESA Program, a sport program enriched with cognitive stimuli. Moreover, parents of these children attended four seminars about the importance of supporting children for the practice of regular physical activity (PA). A control group consisting of children that attended the ordinary physical education school class was also included.

Results

A repeated measures MANOVA model showed that the ESA Program was able to improve children’s general motivation, in particular the intrinsic motivation. The program was not effective in social support, but, independently from the group, the family social support in sports activities decreased for females.

Conclusion

Apart from cognitive improvement, the ESA Program can have beneficial effects on children’s sports motivation in physical education, but not on perceived social support.