The Dynamics of Foreign Language Enjoyment: An Ecological Momentary Assessment

Teacher support in language learning: a picture of the effects on language progress, academic immunity, and academic enjoyment

Teacher support encompasses the provision of educational, instrumental, sentimental, or evaluative assistance by a teacher to a student, regardless of the setting. Learning a new language brings with it different ups and downs that may hinder the actual progress of the learners. The journey of learning may be made easier by supportive instructors. During the course of this inquiry, two groups (85 participants in total) including the experimental and control groups were chosen to gauge the influence of Teacher support in virtual instruction on English as a foreign language (EFL) learners' progress, academic immunity, and academic enjoyment. In contrast to the experimental group (EG, n = 42), which had the chance to connect with a teacher in order to ask questions and get feedback plus the off-line education, the control group (CG, n = 44) was subjected to off-line instruction of language input (Top Notch 3). The status of the participants' language growth, immunity, and enjoyment was investigated both before and after the treatment. The findings of independent samples t-tests as well as the multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) indicated that learners in EG did much better than their counterparts in CG. In addition, the ramifications and recommendations for potential future directions are analyzed.

The need for ecological nested models as emerging theoretical frameworks in the investigation of affective variables in L2 education

As an emotionally dynamic process, language learning is marked by fluctuations in students' affective constructs (e.g., enjoyment, playfulness, boredom). Thus, clues supporting an ecological perspective on behavioral trends and changes in language learners' emotional constructs driven by relational person and contextual components may be discovered. Therefore, an ecological approach enriched with the nested ecosystems model and complex dynamic system theory (CDST) can facilitate the investigation of dynamics of language students' affective constructs. These are first categorized and analyzed on the microsystem scale concerning students' motivation, beliefs, linguistic factors, cognitive factors, affective factors, and classroom context. Then, they are analyzed in 3 ecosystems including meso-, exo-, and macrosystems, each revealing an invaluable dimension of the reality of the emergent dynamicity of the variables. The present paper first draws attention to the dynamic nature of L2 learners' emotional factors and raises awareness of the ecological dynamic system theory. Then, it reviews the existing ecological studies of L2 affective variables and summarizes the findings. It ends with several conclusive remarks and suggestions for the future line of research.

The application of relational theory towards a deeper understanding of emotional variables in language education

At the heart of the relational theory, which stems from psychological studies, is the contention that the human mind is formed within interpersonal relationships. In the present paper, the aim is to show that the same goes for emotions. More importantly, in educational settings, the relationships between and among the individuals especially the teacher-student relationships lead to the emergence of different emotions. The present paper shows how the relational theory can be used in the second language acquisition domain to explain the development of different L2 emotions that learners experience while interactively involved in acquiring a second language in class. What is mostly emphasized in this paper is the teacher-student relationships that occur in L2 classes and accommodate the L2 emotions. The related literature on teacher-student relationships and emotional development in L2 classrooms is reviewed, and insightful remarks are provided for L2 teachers, teacher trainers, learners, and researchers.

A cross-lagged panel analysis of second language achievement and enjoyment

Although self-perceived language proficiency has recently been found to influence foreign language enjoyment (FLE), rigorous assessment of the causal relationship between actual second language (L2) achievement and FLE has received relatively little attention. Based on control-value theory, this longitudinal study examined the causal antecedents of the relationship between the L2 achievement of 206 FL learners and their FLE from the perspective of dynamic systems theory and conducted a cross-lagged panel (CLP) analysis using Mplus 8.3 software. Both variables were measured two times over one academic year (10 months) in an English as a foreign language (EFL) course. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test showed significant changes in both variables over time. According to the CLP path model, L2 achievement at Time 1 (T1) appeared to affect subsequent FLE, while FLE at T1 failed to predict L2 achievement at Time 2 (T2). This study provides empirical evidence of the directional effect of L2 achievement on FLE regarding the hypothesized reciprocal effect of the two. Implications for stakeholders in the field of education are discussed.

The need for ecological momentary assessment in researching emotional factors in language education

Language learning is an emotional and dynamic process, which is marked by fluctuations in language learners' positive and negative emotional variables (e.g., boredom, enjoyment, anxiety). Presumably, evidence can be found for an ecological view of the patterns and variations involved in language learners' emotions under the influence of the interactive individual and contextual elements of classroom learning. The present study contends that an ecological momentary assessment (EMA), which is compatible with the complex dynamic system theory (CDST) can help to explore the dynamics of language learners' emotional variables as they develop out of the process of classroom language learning. EMA is capable of tracing the moment-by-moment changes in a certain emotional trait in language learners as they are learning a foreign or second language. This innovative approach to research compensates for the shortcomings of retrospective studies (the delay of recalls) and also single-shot research designs (for data collection). It is fit for the assessment of the emergent patterns of L2 emotional variables. The distinctive features and pedagogical implications will be further discussed here.

A qualitative analysis of control-value appraisals, positive achievement emotions, and EFL performance in a Chinese senior high school context

Based on the control-value theory (CVT), this study qualitatively investigated the relationship between control-value appraisals, achievement emotions (mainly enjoyment, pride, and hope), and English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) performance, and explored other antecedents of achievement emotions in addition to control-value appraisals. Data were collected from six Chinese high school students through two semi-structured interviews and one focus group discussion. With thematic analysis, data were analyzed under the framework of the CVT using NVivo 11.0. Results indicate that high perceived control, high perceived extrinsic, and intrinsic values were interactively associated with enjoyment, pride, and hope. Low perceived control, high perceived extrinsic value, and low perceived intrinsic value were interactively associated with fewer positive achievement emotions (only hope) and more negative achievement emotions like fear. High perceived control, high perceived extrinsic value, and low perceived intrinsic value were interactively associated with fewer positive achievement emotions (only pride), and more negative achievement emotions like anguish. Besides, positive achievement emotions were positively associated with EFL performance, while negative achievement emotions were negatively associated with EFL performance. Moreover, factors inside the classroom, factors outside the classroom, and personal factors were found to be the antecedents of achievement emotions in EFL learning.

In search of well-established evaluative criteria for the emerging qualitative methods of L2 affective variables

Qualitative research is marked by context sensitivity with an inclusion of the participants' points of view and setting, how they can affect how participants feel and how this feeling is captured and interpreted by researchers (Yardley, 2017). This is the value of exploring affective variables through qualitative research. The present study focuses on the qualitative studies of L2 affective variables in recent years led by the complexity dynamic systems theory (CDST). This new line of research has employed innovative research methods compatible with the CDST, and has had useful findings. Yet, they seem to lack rigor and systematicity of research. Thus, this observed lack of consistency is problematized in the present study and attempts are made to set evaluative criteria for the judgment of the burgeoning studies and guiding the future line of qualitative and dynamic inquiry in the L2 affective domain. To this aim, the different sets of evaluative criteria proposed for qualitative research are derived from the mostly cited scholars in the research methodology. The relevance of each to the dynamic qualitative investigations of L2 affective variables is discussed. Then these evaluative criteria are abstracted and put forth for the qualitative research in the dynamic phase of second language acquisition (SLA) research. The overall goal is to guide future researchers with an interest in investigating the dynamic and developmental nature of L2 affective variables qualitatively. These evaluative criteria can pave the way for the emergence of more rigorous and systematic qualitative studies of L2 affective factors in the future.

The need for social network analysis for the investigation of affective variables in second language acquisition

Considering the inherent developmental nature of language learners’ affective variables (e.g., their motivation, grit, foreign language enjoyment, and boredom), nuances of the development of these constructs need to be approached from a complex dynamic systems theory (CDST) perspective. Among the qualitative research methodologies compatible with the CDST is the social network analysis (SNA) with the interconnectedness and interdependence of systems within a social network at its core. In this article, an overall introduction to SNA is presented first and then followed by a review of the limited existing literature on second language acquisition (SLA) studies. Then, I argue why this innovative research method is suitable to investigate the dynamic nature of L2 learners’ affective variables in the social network of classroom learning. I also suggest several relevant research questions that can potentially be formulated and answered using the SNA. The article ends with conclusive remarks on the need for a more extensive use of innovative CDST-compatible research methods such as SNA in the prospective SLA line of research.

A Dynamic Systems Study on Complexity, Accuracy, and Fluency in English Writing Development by Chinese University Students

This study investigated the development of lexical complexity, sentence complexity, accuracy, and fluency in the English writing of 22 Chinese university students from the perspective of Complex Dynamic Systems Theory (CDST). Compositions were assigned 30 times over the course of one academic year through Pigaiwang, an online platform that automatically evaluates writing. A modified retrodictive modeling approach was adopted. Specifically, a longitudinal cluster analysis was used to examine emergent prototypes. A moving correlation analysis and retrodictive interviews were conducted to study the signature dynamics that produce each prototype. At each collection, the 22 student compositions were classified into two clusters. One cluster contained those students who performed better than average in accuracy, but worse in the other three variables. The other cluster comprised those students with the opposite performance. Students moved continuously between the two clusters; and their change trajectories can be categorized into three prototypes: a continuously stable type, an initially variable and then stable type, and a continuously variable type. Case studies of three students representing the three emergent prototypes indicated that the signature dynamics for the three prototypes were related to dynamic interactions among different variables and dynamic changes in affect-related elements in the form of writing interests, motivation, and strategies. The initial conditions and the feedback from Pigaiwang acted as key control parameters in shaping the prototypes. The continuously variable prototype developed their writing proficiency to the greatest extent and had the most variability. Based upon the findings, implications for teaching L2 writing are discussed.

Enjoymeter for Exploring Micro-Scale Changes in Foreign Language Enjoyment

With the popularity of positive psychology research in second language acquisition since 2012, foreign language enjoyment (FLE) has attracted many researchers in this domain. Several innovative quantitative and qualitative research methods have been used so far to explore FLE. However, given the dynamic nature of FLE, the development of innovative tools can contribute to the exploration of the micro-scale dynamics of FLE. This study aims to introduce enjoymeter as one of these innovative tools and provide an example for its use in a foreign language learning setting. To do this, the application of enjoymeters in the exploration of the dynamics of FLE in an English as a foreign language course in China is explained. The enjoymeter data along with interviews were collected in three sessions of the course and were analyzed via thematic analysis. The findings indicated that moments of enjoyment emerged in terms of both private FLE and social FLE in these three sessions. Also, the use of enjoymeter indicated that it can enable researchers to map the dynamics of FLE session by session and even within each session of the course. The pedagogical implications of the use of enjoymeters in foreign language classes are discussed and future directions are explained.

A Positive Psychology Perspective on Positive Emotion and Foreign Language Enjoyment Among Chinese as a Second Language Learners Attending Virtual Online Classes in the Emergency Remote Teaching Context Amid the COVID-19 Pandemic

This study adopted a positive psychology perspective to investigate positive emotion and foreign language enjoyment among Chinese as a second language (CSL) learners in an emergency remote teaching (ERT) context amid the COVID-19 pandemic. A set of 90 preparatory Chinese language students (40 males and 50 females) was assessed for their level of foreign language enjoyment using the Foreign Language Enjoyment Scale (FLES). Participles' scores on self-perceived language achievement and actual test scores were adopted as the measurement of their Chinese language proficiency. The results revealed that: (1) CSL learners experienced high level of FL enjoyment in an online learning context, (2) no significant correlation was found between FLE and leaners' actual language achievement nor between FLE and their self-perceived achievement, (3) female learners showed higher FLE than male learners and gender was found to have a significant effect on FLE-Private, (4) participants' geological location, i.e., whether in China or at home countries, significantly influenced their FLE, (5) participants' regional group was not a significant predictor of FLE, and (6) teacher-related variables and learner self-perceptions of achievement were strong predictors of FLE among CSL learners. The findings highlight the importance of teacher's role in an online learning environment and suggest that FLE may not boost performance in the short term for language beginners but is still conducive in the long run. Implications for both teachers and learners, and suggestions for future researches are provided.

A Review of Foreign Language Learners' Emotions

In the past half century, the research on emotions of foreign language learners (FLL) has shifted the focus from an exclusive analysis of negative emotions to a more holistic study of both negative emotions and positive emotions, and currently to mediators of multiple emotions. Of the FLL's negative emotions, foreign language anxiety (FLA) attracts the most attention. Researchers have widely discussed the relationship between FLA and foreign language achievement, the influencing factors of FLA, the dynamicity of FLA as well as regulation and intervention strategies of FLA. Foreign language enjoyment (FLE) is the most heavily studied research subject on FLL's positive emotions. Researchers generally focus on the influencing factors of FLE, the dynamicity of FLE and the relationship between FLE and FLA. With the implementation of holistic education, emotional intelligence (EI), a mediator of multiple emotions of FLL, has been becoming a newly hot topic in the field of FLL's emotions. By reviewing the previous studies, this paper proposes that the future research on FLL emotion needs to expand the research perspectives, enrich the research topics, and innovate the research methods.

Taking a Fresh Look at Foreign Language Enjoyment Research in SLA: Current Status, Future Directions, and Pedagogical Implications

Foreign Language Enjoyment (FLE), as the most prevalent positive emotion predicting L2 learners' academic performance and well-being, and a critical factor contributing to the creation of positive micro-institutions (e.g., the classrooms), has received remarkable scholarly attention across the globe in the past eight years. Despite the fact that FLE is the most extensively investigated positive emotion and extant research has yielded rich and invaluable findings, it is far from being adequately studied, leaving vast lacunas to be explored. Therefore, this conceptual review article is written to familiarize language education researchers, practitioners, instructors, and learners with the current status of FLE research and its potential applications in L2 education, and suggest potential avenues for future research. To this aim, by making a diachronical and synchronical delineation of extant literature with regard to the conceptualization and theorization of FLE, and the methodology of FLE research, we argue that it is incumbent on researchers to make a new line of enquiry into the actualization of the ascertained affordances of FLE and its transmission in the microsystem of the classroom. Subsequently, by drawing on the broaden-and-build theory and the control-value theory, we highlight the significance of conducting FLE research with theoretical triangulation and methodological diversity to validate the data and minimum bias. Next, while highlighting the critical role of FLE in L2 education, we suggest some pedagogical implications with the hope of enlightening the practice of key stakeholders such as instructors, teacher educators, and teacher recruiters. In the end, the limitations of existing literature are explicated, and avenues for future studies on FLE in L2 education domain are put forward for interested researchers.

The Impact of an Intensive English Reading Course Based on the Production-Oriented Approach on the L2 Motivational Self System Among Chinese University English Majors From a Dynamic Systems Theory Perspective

This article reports on a study that took a Dynamic Systems Theory (DST) perspective to second language (L2) motivational self system (L2MSS). More specifically, it investigated the influence of an Intensive English Reading course based on the Production-Oriented Approach (POA) upon the L2MSS of Chinese university English majorsfrom the DST perspective. To this end, two intact classes composed of 50 students were assigned into experimental group (EG) (N = 23) and control group (CG) (N = 27), who responded to an L2MSS scale before and after the one-semester intervention. Eight and five students were respectively selected using the purposive sampling method from the experimental and control groups for follow-up semi-structured interviews. The quantitative results revealed that the overall and dimensional (Ideal L2 Self and L2 Learning Experience) levels of L2MSS were significantly strengthened over time in the EG while kept stable in the CG. The qualitative results suggested that the enhanced Ideal L2 Self of the participants stemmed from an attractor basin that was deepened by a number of attractors encompassing Output Tasks and Peer Performance. The interview results also showed that the increased L2 Learning Experience of the participants pertained to an attractor basin that was consolidated by an array of attractors containing Output Tasks, Teacher Guidance, Group Discussion, and Peer Assessment. The findings indicated that the attractors at the subjective and social dimensions in the POA-based course collectively worked together to cause changes in L2MSS among the participants. The implications for intervening L2 motivation from a POA approach in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms were discussed.

Researching and Practicing Positive Psychology in Second/Foreign Language Learning and Teaching: The Past, Current Status and Future Directions

In addressing the recent special issue in Frontiers in Psychology, namely "Positive Psychology in Foreign and Second Language Education: Approaches and Applications," calling language education researchers around the globe to study positive emotions, positive personality traits, and positive institutional tendencies and their implications for language education systems, stakeholders, and policy practices, the present conceptual review paper aims to acquaint language education researchers, practitioners, instructors, and learners with the main tenets of positive psychology and their application in second/foreign language (L2) education research. Accordingly, by drawing on the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions, we explain how individuals' positivity can result in their flourishment and development in any aspect of life, including L2 learning and teaching. Then, we introduce and conceptualize seven instances of positive psychology variables, namely academic engagement, emotion regulation, enjoyment, grit, loving pedagogy, resilience, and well-being and explain how these positive factors contribute to desirable L2 learning and teaching experiences. Subsequently, potential theoretical and pedagogical implications are drawn to enhance the quality and effectiveness of language education systems and their respective stakeholders. In the end, the limitations of the studies in this area are explicated, and suggestions for future research are provided to expand the extant literature on positive psychology in the domain of L2 education.

A Review of Foreign Language Enjoyment and Engagement

The introduction of positive psychology into foreign/second language learning has led to a multitude of novel theoretical and empirical studies. Foreign language enjoyment (FLE) is regarded as a response to the widely examined concept of classroom anxiety. The majority of these studies have investigated the effect of learners’ and teachers’ characteristics (Xie and Derakhshan, 2021) pertaining to FLE on learners’ academic achievement and their engagement in classroom tasks. Following a seminal study by Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014) and the development of the primary FLE scale, some researchers evaluated the extent of learners’ enjoyment in the language learning environment; these studies approved the effectiveness and prominence of FLE throughout the learning process. The present review is an attempt to review studies on FLE during the past two decades. The related literature confirms the significance and efficiency of promoting FLE in the classroom because it brings about higher levels of motivation and engagement among language learners and leads to prolonged success and achievement. A summary of the major efforts regarding this area of research is presented in this study.

A Longitudinal Study of Foreign Language Enjoyment and L2 Grit: A Latent Growth Curve Modeling

In line with the dynamic shift in SLA domain and the need for the development of suitable methods to explore the dynamics of emerging concepts in the field such as grit and enjoyment, in the present research, we intended to investigate the growth of foreign language enjoyment (FLE) and L2 grit over time. To do this, we used a bivariate latent growth curve model (LGCM) to examine the covariance between 437 EFL learners' initial and growth levels of L2 grit and FLE in four measurement occasions of 2 week intervals. The data were collected via the original foreign language enjoyment scale and the L2 grit scale. The model including the covariance between intercepts and slopes of FLE and L2 grit was tested via Mplus 7. The findings indicated an increasing trend in the association between the growth levels of both variables. That is, the means of both L2 grit and FLE were larger at their growth level than their initial level. Also, analyzing the co-variations in the model showed that the covariances between the intercepts and slopes of FLE and L2 grit were statistically significant. This would point to the existence of a parallel process (co-development) of FLE and L2 grit. This result also implied that an increase in the level of FLE among the participants was strongly correlated with an increase in the level of L2 grit during the whole course. The findings were discussed with reference to previous studies in the literature and the implications were also provided.

The Relationship Between Chinese English Major Students' Learning Anxiety and Enjoyment in an English Language Classroom: A Positive Psychology Perspective

Many studies have explored learner psychology in relation to second language acquisition (SLA) in order to understand the effectiveness and difficulties of language learning. In the last two decades, emotional factors in students' language learning have garnered much attention in the field of SLA. However, more recently, studies have begun to focus on enjoyment and its relationship with anxiety. By collecting data at a provincial key university in southeast China, the study discussed in this paper investigated English major university students' emotions related to learning English. By collecting questionnaire responses from 140 English major undergraduates and conducting interviews with six students, the findings revealed that the participants' levels of foreign language enjoyment (FLE) were significantly higher than their levels of foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA) and that they experienced FLE more frequently than FLCA. It was also found that the participants' FLE was more related to their teachers and peers and their FLCA was more related to their emotions, such as fear of a negative evaluation and speaking without sufficient preparation. In addition, this study also provides a few pedagogical implications for improving foreign language learning outcomes and teaching efficiency in English teaching and learning.