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Naughton M, Salmon PM, Kerhervé HA, McLean S. Applying a systems thinking lens to anti-doping: A systematic review identifying the contributory factors to doping in sport. J Sports Sci 2024:1-15. [PMID: 38284139 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2024.2306056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 01/06/2024] [Indexed: 01/30/2024]
Abstract
The use of performance enhancing substances and methods (known as "doping") in sport is an intractable issue, with current anti-doping strategies predominantly focused on the personal responsibility and strict liability of individual athletes. This is despite an emerging understanding that athletes exist as part of a broader complex sports system that includes governance, policymakers, media, sponsors, clubs, team members, and athlete support staff, to name a few. As such, there is a need to examine the broader systemic factors that influence doping in sport. The aim of this systematic review was to identify and synthesise the factors contributing to doping and doping behaviours, attitudes, and beliefs and the extent to which this knowledge extends beyond the athlete to consider broader sports systems. The review followed PRISMA guidelines with risk of bias and study quality assessed by the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool, and identified contributory factors synthesised and mapped onto a systems thinking-based framework. Overall, the included studies were determined to be of high quality. Support personnel, the coach, and the coach-athlete relationship represent key influences on the athletes' decisions to dope. From the evidence presented, doping is an emergent property of sport systems and represents a complex systemic problem that will require whole-of-system interventions. The implications for this and the focus of future research are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitchell Naughton
- Centre for Human Factors and Sociotechnical Systems, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, Australia
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia
- Applied Sports Science and Exercise Testing Laboratory, University of Newcastle, Ourimbah, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Paul M Salmon
- Centre for Human Factors and Sociotechnical Systems, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, Australia
| | - Hugo A Kerhervé
- Movement, Sport and Health Sciences Laboratory, University of Rennes, Rennes, France
| | - Scott McLean
- Centre for Human Factors and Sociotechnical Systems, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, Australia
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Veltmaat A, Dreiskämper D, Brueckner S, Bondarev D, Heyes A, Barkoukis V, Elbe AM, Lazuras L, De Maria A, Zelli A, Petróczi A. Context matters: athletes' perception of dopers' values, actions and vulnerabilities. Front Sports Act Living 2023; 5:1229679. [PMID: 38162700 PMCID: PMC10757837 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2023.1229679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Although athletes seem to hold uniform views towards non-dopers, their perception of dopers is more nuanced, reflecting positive and negative attributes. Research also indicates that rarely a single factor can explain doping, but a host of reasons that intertwine. A holistic understanding of how values play a role in decisions in anti-doping and the elements that influence athletes' doping vulnerability is timely and warranted. Methods We recruited elite athletes from 13 countries representing 27 sports at a national or international level (N = 60) to participate as part of a larger research project. Data were collected via focus group interviews focusing on values, value priorities and perceptions about the role of values in doping as a phenomenon and in dopers' actions. Data were analysed using iterative thematic analysis. Results Three themes were identified: (1) athletes' personal stance on doping, (2) dopers in the eyes of the anti-doping-compliant athletes, and (3) doping vulnerability is a balance. Athletes in this study strongly opposed doping but showed empathy and understanding toward athletes who doped under certain circumstances. Furthermore, athletes believed that "clean" and "doping" athletes are not always distinguished by the values they hold, leading to the realisation that all athletes can be vulnerable to doping at some point. This vulnerability is a balance between risks and protective factors in a complex interaction between environmental, personal, and situational influences. Each element (e.g., values, environment) can be a motivator or a barrier. Consequently, doping vulnerability is highly idiosyncratic and dynamic. Conclusion If doping is not due to a lack of moral values but the consequences of combined risk factors that override the guiding function of values, then doping can happen to anyone, "good" athletes included. Developers and facilitators of anti-doping education programmes are advised to embrace this important aspect. The results also contribute to developing the doping vulnerability concept as a balance between risks and protective factors and draw attention to the clean athlete vulnerability, which is rooted in the combination of strategic performance enhancement via non-prohibited means, their exposure to anti-doping requirements and the constant high level of suspicion that surrounds them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annalena Veltmaat
- Department of Sport and Exercise Psychology, Institute of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Dennis Dreiskämper
- Department of Sport and Exercise Psychology, Institute of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Sebastian Brueckner
- Department of Sport and Exercise Psychology, Institute of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
- Willibald Gebhardt Research Institute, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Dmitriy Bondarev
- Institute of Medicine and Life Sciences, Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, Kaliningrad, Russia
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
- Data and Marketing Analytics Department, SSM Sisä-Suomi Oy, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Andrew Heyes
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Faculty of Health, Science, Social Care and Education, Kingston University, London, United Kingdom
- Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Vassilis Barkoukis
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Anne-Marie Elbe
- Department of Sport Psychology, Faculty of Sport Science, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Lambros Lazuras
- School of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom
| | - Alessandra De Maria
- Department of Movement, Human, and Health Sciences, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, Rome, Italy
| | - Arnaldo Zelli
- Department of Movement, Human, and Health Sciences, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, Rome, Italy
| | - Andrea Petróczi
- Willibald Gebhardt Research Institute, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Faculty of Health, Science, Social Care and Education, Kingston University, London, United Kingdom
- Faculty of Education & Psychology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
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Diao G, Liu F, Zuo Z, Moghimi MK. Privacy-aware and Efficient Student Clustering for Sport Training with Hash in Cloud Environment. JOURNAL OF CLOUD COMPUTING (HEIDELBERG, GERMANY) 2022; 11:52. [PMID: 36193237 PMCID: PMC9517989 DOI: 10.1186/s13677-022-00325-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
With the wide adoption of health and sport concepts in human society, how to effectively analyze the personalized sports preferences of students based on past sports training records has become a crucial and emergent task with positive research significance. However, the past sports training records of students are often accumulated with time and stored in a central cloud platform and therefore, the data volume is too large to be processed with quick response. In addition, the past sports training records of students often contain certain sensitive information, which probably discloses partial user privacy if we cannot protect the data well. Considering these two challenges, a privacy-aware and efficient student clustering approach, named PESC is proposed, which is based on a hash technique and deployed on a central cloud platform connecting multiple local servers. Concretely, in the cloud platform, each student is firstly assigned an index based on the past sports training records stored in a local server, through a uniform hash mapping operation. Then similar students are clustered and registered in the cloud platform based on the students' respective sport indexes. At last, we infer the personalized sport preferences of each student based on their belonged clusters. To prove the feasibility of PESC, we provide a case study and a set of experiments deployed on a time-aware dataset.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoyan Diao
- College of Physical Education, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming, China
| | - Fang Liu
- Faculty of Foreign Languages, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming, China
| | - Zhikai Zuo
- College of Physical Education, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming, China
| | - Mohammad Kazem Moghimi
- Department of Communication Engineering, University of Sistan and Baluchestan, Zahedan, Iran
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García-Grimau E, De la Vega R, De Arce R, Casado A. Attitudes Toward and Susceptibility to Doping in Spanish Elite and National-Standard Track and Field Athletes: An Examination of the Sport Drug Control Model. Front Psychol 2021; 12:679001. [PMID: 34168599 PMCID: PMC8219072 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.679001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The Sport Drug Control Model (SDCM) is likely to be the model which most explicitly represents the theoretical paradigm of the psychological study of the use of doping in sport. This model can be further developed through its analysis in different populations and cultures. The main aim of this study was to empirically test the SDCM while analyzing for the first time the intentions and attitudes toward doping in Spanish track and field athletes. A secondary aim was to assess the extent to which the variables in the model together predict attitude, susceptibility, and behavior toward the use of performance-enhancing substances. Participants were 281 Spanish elite and national-standard track and field athletes from whom 80.1% were 18-28 years old and 49.5% were females. Participants completed the SDCM questionnaire measuring morality, legitimacy, benefits appraisal, threat appraisal, self-efficacy to refrain from doping, reference groups' endorsement of doping methods/substances, use of legal supplements, availability and affordability of doping, attitudes toward doping, susceptibility to doping and, self-reported use of banned performance-enhancing substances or methods. Structural equation modeling supported a good fitness of the SDCM and confirmed that positive attitudes toward doping predicted high susceptibility to doping (β = 0.55, p < 0.001), which is in turn associated with the use of prohibited substances and methods (β = 0.12, p < 0.05). The factors that have most influence on attitudes toward doping are morality (β = 0.46, p < 0.001) and reference group opinion (β =0.62, p <0.001). Self-reported doping use was 9.6%. These findings confirm SDCM reproducibility and variability (as it accounts for several variables) in Spanish track and field competitive athletes. It is recommended to implement preventive programs which allow athletes to acquire a strong moral stance against doping and coaches to employ the tools required to instill and educate their athletes in rejecting these illegal practices that corrupt the integrity of competitive sport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena García-Grimau
- Department of Physical Education, Sport and Human Movement, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain.,Department of Digital Communications, Spanish Agency for Health Protection in Sport, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ricardo De la Vega
- Department of Physical Education, Sport and Human Movement, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Rafael De Arce
- Department of Applied Economics, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Arturo Casado
- Centre for Sport Studies, Rey Juan Carlos University, Madrid, Spain.,Faculty of Health Sciences, Isabel I University, Burgos, Spain
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Miskulin I, Grbic DS, Miskulin M. Doping Attitudes, Beliefs, and Practices among Young, Amateur Croatian Athletes. Sports (Basel) 2021; 9:sports9020025. [PMID: 33572386 PMCID: PMC7916256 DOI: 10.3390/sports9020025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Revised: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies revealed that amateur athletes, especially young ones, have an increasing tendency of performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) usage. The aim of this study was to explore PEDs attitudes, beliefs, and practices among young, amateur Croatian athletes. This cross-sectional study using a specially designed questionnaire as a research tool was done during the August 2019 to January 2020 period among a convenient sample of 400 amateur athletes of median age 18 (interquartile range 15 to 21) years. The prevalence of current PEDs usage was 1.3%, while past PEDs usage prevalence was 3.3%. Current PEDs usage was more frequent among young adults (p = 0.048) and athletes playing individual sports (p = 0.001). Athletes who were engaged in sports from one to five years had more permissive attitudes toward PEDs (p < 0.001) as measured by the Performance Enhancement Attitude Scale. Female athletes had more positive beliefs about PEDs usage (p = 0.008). The study did not establish any correlation between current or past PEDs usage and attitudes toward PEDs as well as beliefs about PEDs usage. However, there was a weak positive correlation between attitudes toward PEDs and athletes’ beliefs about PEDs usage (rs = 0.465, p < 0.001). PEDs usage is present among young Croatian amateur athletes. There is a need for interventions directed toward the prevention of PEDs usage in an observed subgroup of athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Miskulin
- Department of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +385-91-2241-500
| | - Danijela Stimac Grbic
- Department of Social Medicine and Organization of Health Care, Andrija Stampar School of Public Health, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
| | - Maja Miskulin
- Department of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia;
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Thevis M, Kuuranne T, Geyer H. Annual banned-substance review: Analytical approaches in human sports drug testing 2019/2020. Drug Test Anal 2020; 13:8-35. [PMID: 33185038 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Accepted: 11/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Analytical chemistry-based research in sports drug testing has been a dynamic endeavor for several decades, with technology-driven innovations continuously contributing to significant improvements in various regards including analytical sensitivity, comprehensiveness of target analytes, differentiation of natural/endogenous substances from structurally identical but synthetically derived compounds, assessment of alternative matrices for doping control purposes, and so forth. The resulting breadth of tools being investigated and developed by anti-doping researchers has allowed to substantially improve anti-doping programs and data interpretation in general. Additionally, these outcomes have been an extremely valuable pledge for routine doping controls during the unprecedented global health crisis that severely affected established sports drug testing strategies. In this edition of the annual banned-substance review, literature on recent developments in anti-doping published between October 2019 and September 2020 is summarized and discussed, particularly focusing on human doping controls and potential applications of new testing strategies to substances and methods of doping specified the World Anti-Doping Agency's 2020 Prohibited List.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Thevis
- Center for Preventive Doping Research - Institute of Biochemistry, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany.,European Monitoring Center for Emerging Doping Agents, Cologne, Germany
| | - Tiia Kuuranne
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Genève and Lausanne, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne, Epalinges, Switzerland
| | - Hans Geyer
- Center for Preventive Doping Research - Institute of Biochemistry, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany.,European Monitoring Center for Emerging Doping Agents, Cologne, Germany
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Nicholls AR, Fairs LRW, Plata-Andrés M, Bailey R, Cope E, Madigan D, Koenen K, Glibo I, Theodorou NC, Laurent JF, Garcia G, Chanal B. Feasibility randomised controlled trial examining the effects of the Anti-Doping Values in Coach Education (ADVICE) mobile application on doping knowledge and attitudes towards doping among grassroots coaches. BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med 2020; 6:e000800. [PMID: 33088583 PMCID: PMC7547541 DOI: 10.1136/bmjsem-2020-000800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Objectives Sports coaches are influential in whether athletes dope, but receive very little antidoping education, particularly within entry-level coaching qualifications. We tested the feasibility of an antidoping intervention, delivered via a mobile application, which was designed to increase coaches’ knowledge of doping and to reduce favourable doping attitudes. Methods A two-arm randomised controlled trial, with grassroots coaches who coach young amateur athletes aged between 14 and 18 years of age, was conducted. The Anti-Doping Values in Coach Education (ADVICE) mobile application included modules on fair play, substances, nutritional supplements, rules and leadership. The primary outcome was the change in doping knowledge, 6 weeks after receiving the mobile application. The secondary outcome was changes in doping attitudes. Results Grassroots coaches (n=200; aged between 18 and 71 years, with between 1 and 42 years of coaching experience) from 29 different countries completed baseline assessments, and 85 completed follow-up assessments, and were included in mixed analysis of variance analyses. The intervention increased coaches’ knowledge about doping and also reduced favourable doping attitudes in the experimental arm. Conclusion The ADVICE mobile application is a feasible method for delivering and increasing grassroots coaches’ knowledge of banned substances and the potential side effects of doping. Mobile application-based resources could facilitate a much wider dissemination of antidoping education.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lucas R W Fairs
- Department of Sport, Health, and Exercise Science, University of Hull, Hull, UK
| | - Mar Plata-Andrés
- Agencia Española de Protección de la Salud en el Deporte, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Edward Cope
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
| | | | - Katrin Koenen
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Senate of Berlin, Berlin, UK
| | - Iva Glibo
- Department of Sport and Health Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Munchen, Germany
| | | | | | - Gaetan Garcia
- The Association for International Sport for All, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Benoit Chanal
- Agence Française de Lutte Contre le Dopage, Paris, France
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