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Döbler NA, Carbon CC. Adapting Ourselves, Instead of the Environment: An Inquiry into Human Enhancement for Function and Beyond. Integr Psychol Behav Sci 2024; 58:589-637. [PMID: 37597122 PMCID: PMC11052783 DOI: 10.1007/s12124-023-09797-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/29/2023] [Indexed: 08/21/2023]
Abstract
Technology enables humans not only to adapt their environment to their needs but also to modify themselves. Means of Human Enhancement - embodied technologies to improve the human body's capabilities or to create a new one - are the designated means of adapting ourselves instead of the environment. The debate about these technologies is typically fought on ethical soil. However, alarmist, utopian, and science fiction scenarios distract from the fact that Human Enhancement is a historical and pervasive phenomenon incorporated into many everyday practices. In the vein of disentangling conceptual difficulties, we claim that means of Human Enhancement are either physiologically or psychologically embodied, rendering the merging with the human user their most defining aspect. To fulfill its purpose, an enhancement must pass the test-in-the-world, i.e., assisting with effective engagement with a dynamic world. Even if failing in this regard: Human Enhancement is the fundamental and semi-targeted process of changing the users relationship with the world through the physical or psychological embodiment of a hitherto external object and/or change of one's body. This can potentially change the notion of being human. Drawing on a rich body of theoretical and empirical literature, we aim to provide a nuanced analysis of the transformative nature of this phenomenon in close proximity to human practice. Stakeholders are invited to apply the theory presented here to interrogate their perspective on technology in general and Human Enhancement in particular.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niklas Alexander Döbler
- Department for General Psychology and Methodology, University of Bamberg, Bamberg, Germany.
- Research group EPÆG (Ergonomics, Psychological Æsthetics, Gestalt), Bamberg, Germany.
- Bamberg Graduate School of Affective and Cognitive Sciences (BaGrACS), Bamberg, Germany.
| | - Claus-Christian Carbon
- Department for General Psychology and Methodology, University of Bamberg, Bamberg, Germany
- Research group EPÆG (Ergonomics, Psychological Æsthetics, Gestalt), Bamberg, Germany
- Bamberg Graduate School of Affective and Cognitive Sciences (BaGrACS), Bamberg, Germany
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2
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Shehata SA, Kolieb E, Ali DA, Maher SA, Korayem HE, Ibrahim MA, Nafie MS, Ameen SH. Selenium alleviates modafinil-induced neurobehavioral toxicity in rat via PI3K/Akt/mTOR/GSK3B signaling pathway and suppression of oxidative stress and apoptosis: in vivo and in silico study. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024; 31:458-480. [PMID: 38015391 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-31093-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
Nonmedical use of modafinil (MOD) led to increased rates of overdose toxicity, road accidents, addiction, withdrawal, suicide, and mental illnesses. The current study aims to determine the probable MOD brain toxicity and elucidate the possible role of selenium (Se) in ameliorating the neurotoxicity in rat models. Fifty-four male Albino rats were randomly assigned into nine groups. The groups were G1 (control negative), G2 (Se0.1), G3 (Se0.2), G4 (MOD300), G5 (MOD600), G6 (Se0.1 + MOD300), G7 (Se0.2 + MOD300), G8 (Se0.1 + MOD600), and G9 (Se0.2 + MOD600). After finishing the experiment, blood and brain tissue were harvested for biochemical and histological investigation. Neurobehavior parameters were assessed. Tissue neurotransmitter levels and oxidative stress markers were assessed. Gene expression of PI3K/Akt/mTOR-GSK3B, orexin, and orexin receptor2 was measured by qRT-PCR. Histological and immunohistochemistry assessments, as well as molecular docking, were carried out. MOD-induced neurobehavioral toxicity exhibited by behavioral and cognitive function impairments, which are associated with decreased antioxidant activities, increased MDA levels, and decreases in neurotransmitter levels. Brain levels of mRNA expression of PI3K, Akt, and mTOR were decreased, while GS3K, orexin, and orexin receptors were significantly elevated. These disturbances were confirmed by histopathological brain changes with increased silver and Bax immunostaining and decreased crystal violet levels. MOD induced neurotoxic effects in a dose-dependent manner. Compared with the MOD groups, SE coadministration significantly attenuates MOD-induced toxic changes. Docking study shows the protective role of Se as an apoptosis inhibitor and inflammation inhibitor. In conclusion, Se could be used as a biologically effective antioxidant compound to protect from MOD neurobehavioral toxicity in Wistar rats by reversing behavioral alterations, inflammation, apoptosis, and oxidative injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaimaa A Shehata
- Forensic Medicine and Clinical Toxicology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, 41522, Egypt
| | - Eman Kolieb
- Physiology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, 41522, Egypt
| | - Dina A Ali
- Clinical Pharmacology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, 41522, Egypt
- Center of Excellence in Molecular & Cellular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, 41522, Egypt
| | - Shymaa Ahmed Maher
- Center of Excellence in Molecular & Cellular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, 41522, Egypt
- Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, 41522, Egypt
| | - Horeya Erfan Korayem
- Histology and Cell Biology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, 41522, Egypt
| | - Mahrous A Ibrahim
- Forensic Medicine and Clinical Toxicology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, 41522, Egypt.
- Forensic Medicine and Clinical Toxicology, College of Medicine, Jouf University, 72341, Aljouf, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Mohamed S Nafie
- Department of Chemistry, College of Sciences, University of Sharjah, P. O. Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, 41522, Egypt
| | - Shimaa H Ameen
- Forensic Medicine and Clinical Toxicology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Zagazig University, Alsharqia, Egypt
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Guthrie OW, Yang L. Oral intake of carboxy alkyl ester improves attention: A randomized double-blind cross-over placebo-controlled study. Hum Psychopharmacol 2023; 38:e2885. [PMID: 37915240 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Revised: 10/24/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To test the null hypothesis that oral intake of the dietary supplement carboxy alkyl ester (CAE) would have no effect on attention as revealed by mean rapid visual information processing (RVIP) scores. METHODS In a randomized double-blind cross-over placebo-controlled trial, healthy participants (age 19-66 years) of both sexes were randomly assigned to consume 700 mg of CAE or 700 mg of placebo. They received baseline attention testing via the RVIP task. Then they consumed CAE or placebo followed by RVIP testing. Participants were then given a washout period where they did not consume CAE or placebo. Afterward, individuals who initially consumed CAE were given the placebo and those who initially consumed the placebo were given CAE. Finally, all participants were tested again via RVIP. RESULTS A priori statistical computation revealed that 30-day oral intake of CAE improved mean RVIP test scores (t = 2.4, p < .05) relative to that at baseline, which resulted in a rejection of the null hypothesis. CONCLUSIONS Daily oral intake of the CAE dietary supplement may boost attention and further research is now needed to confirm this observation.
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Affiliation(s)
- O'neil W Guthrie
- Cell & Molecular Pathology Laboratory, Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Li Yang
- Cell & Molecular Pathology Laboratory, Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
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Jędrejko K, Catlin O, Stewart T, Anderson A, Muszyńska B, Catlin DH. Unauthorized ingredients in "nootropic" dietary supplements: A review of the history, pharmacology, prevalence, international regulations, and potential as doping agents. Drug Test Anal 2023. [PMID: 37357012 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2023] [Revised: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/27/2023]
Abstract
The first nootropic prohibited in sport was fonturacetam (4-phenylpiracetam, carphedon) in 1998. Presented here 25 years later is a broad-scale consideration of the history, pharmacology, prevalence, regulations, and doping potential of nootropics viewed through a lens of 50 selected dietary supplements (DS) marketed as "cognitive enhancement," "brain health," "brain boosters," or "nootropics," with a focus on unauthorized ingredients. Nootropic DS have risen to prominence over the last decade often as multicomponent formulations of bioactive ingredients presenting compelling pharmacological questions and potential public health concerns. Many popular nootropics are unauthorized food or DS ingredients according to the European Commission including huperzine A, yohimbine, and dimethylaminoethanol; unapproved pharmaceuticals like phenibut or emoxypine (mexidol); previously registered drugs like meclofenoxate or reserpine; EU authorized pharmaceuticals like piracetam or vinpocetine; infamous doping agents like methylhexaneamine or dimethylbutylamine; and other investigational substances and peptides. Several are authorized DS ingredients in the United States resulting in significant global variability as to what qualifies as a legal nootropic. Prohibited stimulants or ß2-agonists commonly used in "pre-workout," "weight loss," or "thermogenic" DS such as octodrine, hordenine, or higenamine are often stacked with nootropic substances. While stimulants and ß2-agonists are defined as doping agents by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), many nootropics are not, although some may qualify as non-approved substances or related substances under catch-all language in the WADA Prohibited List. Synergistic combinations, excessive dosing, or recently researched pharmacology may justify listing certain nootropics as doping agents or warrant additional attention in future regulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karol Jędrejko
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Kraków, Poland
| | - Oliver Catlin
- Banned Substances Control Group (BSCG), Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Timothy Stewart
- Banned Substances Control Group (BSCG), Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Ashley Anderson
- International Sports Pharmacists Network, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - Bożena Muszyńska
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Kraków, Poland
| | - Don H Catlin
- Banned Substances Control Group (BSCG), Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Medicine and Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, California, USA
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Merwid-Ląd A, Passon M, Drymluch P, Głuszyński M, Szeląg A, Matuszewska A. Do Medical Universities Students Use Cognitive Enhancers while Learning?—Conclusions from the Study in Poland. Life (Basel) 2023; 13:life13030820. [PMID: 36983975 PMCID: PMC10056889 DOI: 10.3390/life13030820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Revised: 03/06/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Stress and everyday problems may impact memory and cognition. Therefore, many people use cognitive enhancers (CEs), sold for prescription, as over-the-counter drugs, or dietary supplements, believing they may help with everyday functioning. Our study was designed to answer whether taking CEs is common among Medical University students and to identify which substances are mainly used. Methods and Results: An anonymous online questionnaire was answered by 479 students of Medical (88%) and Dentistry (12%) Faculties in Poland. Women constituted the majority of respondents (63%). CEs were used by 53% of respondents, with the most frequent being caffeine, ginseng, nicotine, theanine, ginkgo, and lecithin. Some persons used CEs that are available only with a prescription. The most important reasons for the use of CEs were to increase arousal and improve concentration (mentioned by 81% and 73%, respectively). Over 65% of students experienced some undesired/adverse effects after taking CEs, with tachycardia being the most common, followed by sleep disturbances (reported by 51% and 40%, respectively). Conclusions: More than half of the respondents from the Medical and Dentistry Faculties reported using CEs, despite their unproven efficacy and not-well-established safety. This raises significant concern about the knowledge of young persons regarding CEs and should encourage universities to undertake educational actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Merwid-Ląd
- Department of Pharmacology, Wroclaw Medical University, J. Mikulicza-Radeckiego 2, 50-345 Wroclaw, Poland
- Correspondence: (A.M.-L.); (A.M.); Tel.: +48-717-841-442 (A.M.-L.); +48-717-841-441 (A.M.)
| | - Michał Passon
- Faculty of Medicine, Wroclaw Medical University, J. Mikulicza-Radeckiego 5, 50-345 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Paweł Drymluch
- Faculty of Medicine, Wroclaw Medical University, J. Mikulicza-Radeckiego 5, 50-345 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Maciej Głuszyński
- Faculty of Medicine, Wroclaw Medical University, J. Mikulicza-Radeckiego 5, 50-345 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Adam Szeląg
- Department of Pharmacology, Wroclaw Medical University, J. Mikulicza-Radeckiego 2, 50-345 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Matuszewska
- Department of Pharmacology, Wroclaw Medical University, J. Mikulicza-Radeckiego 2, 50-345 Wroclaw, Poland
- Correspondence: (A.M.-L.); (A.M.); Tel.: +48-717-841-442 (A.M.-L.); +48-717-841-441 (A.M.)
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Smith KE, Dunn KE, Grundmann O, Garcia-Romeu A, Rogers JM, Swogger MT, Epstein DH. Social, psychological, and substance use characteristics of U.S. adults who use kratom: Initial findings from an online, crowdsourced study. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 2022; 30:983-996. [PMID: 34735202 PMCID: PMC10726725 DOI: 10.1037/pha0000518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Kratom, a plant that produces opioid-like effects, has gained popularity in the U.S. for self-treating symptoms of chronic pain, mood disorders, and substance-use disorders (SUDs). Most data on kratom are from surveys into which current kratom-using adults could self-select; such surveys may underrepresent people who have used kratom and chosen to stop. Available data also do not adequately assess important psychosocial factors surrounding kratom use. In this study, U.S. adults who reported past 6-month alcohol, opioid, and/or stimulant use (N = 1,670) were recruited via Amazon Mechanical Turk between September and December 2020. Of the 1,510 evaluable respondents, 202 (13.4%) reported lifetime kratom use. Kratom-using adults, relative to others, were typically younger, male, unpartnered, without children, and had lower income. They had higher rates of chronic pain (31.7% vs. 21.9%, p = .003), childhood adversity, anxiety, and depression (p < .001), and lower perceived social rank (d = .19, .02-.22) and socioeconomic status (d = .37 .16-.26). They also reported higher use rates for most substances (except alcohol); this included medically supervised and unsupervised use of prescription opioids and diverted opioid agonist therapy (OAT) medications. Most (83.2%) met diagnostic criteria for any past-year SUD. Those reporting kratom use were less likely to reside in an urban/suburban area. The strongest predictors of kratom use were use of other drugs: cannabidiol (OR = 3.73), psychedelics (OR = 3.39), and nonmedical prescription opioids (OR = 1.72). Another strong predictor was lifetime OAT utilization (OR = 2.31). Despite seemingly poorer psychosocial functioning and health among respondents reporting lifetime kratom use, use of other substances may be the strongest indicators of kratom use. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten E. Smith
- Real-world Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
| | - Kelly E. Dunn
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
| | - Oliver Grundmann
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida
| | - Albert Garcia-Romeu
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
| | - Jeffrey M. Rogers
- Real-world Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
| | - Marc T. Swogger
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Rochester Medical Center
| | - David H. Epstein
- Real-world Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
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Malík M, Tlustoš P. Nootropics as Cognitive Enhancers: Types, Dosage and Side Effects of Smart Drugs. Nutrients 2022; 14:nu14163367. [PMID: 36014874 PMCID: PMC9415189 DOI: 10.3390/nu14163367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Revised: 08/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Nootropics, also known as “smart drugs” are a diverse group of medicinal substances whose action improves human thinking, learning, and memory, especially in cases where these functions are impaired. This review provides an up-to-date overview of the potential effectiveness and importance of nootropics. Based on their nature and their effects, this heterogeneous group of drugs has been divided into four subgroups: classical nootropic compounds, substances increasing brain metabolism, cholinergic, and plants and their extracts with nootropic effects. Each subgroup of nootropics contains several main representatives, and for each one, its uses, indications, experimental treatments, dosage, and possible side effects and contraindications are discussed. For the nootropic plant extracts, there is also a brief description of each plant representative, its occurrence, history, and chemical composition of the medicinal part. Lastly, specific recommendations regarding the use of nootropics by both ill and healthy individuals are summarized.
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Loh SP, Cheng SH, Mohamed W. Edible Bird's Nest as a Potential Cognitive Enhancer. Front Neurol 2022; 13:865671. [PMID: 35599726 PMCID: PMC9120600 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2022.865671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2022] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive enhancement is defined as the augmentation of the mind's core capabilities through the improvement of internal or external information processing systems. Recently, the focus has shifted to the potential therapeutic effects of natural products in improving cognitive function. Edible bird's nest (EBN) is a natural food substance derived from the saliva of swiftlets. Until today, EBN is regarded as a high-priced nutritious food with therapeutic effects. The effectiveness of dietary EBN supplementation to enhance brain development in mammals has been documented. Although the neuroprotection of EBN has been previously reported, however, the impact of EBN on learning and memory control and its potential as a cognitive enhancer drug remains unknown. Thus, this article aims to address the neuroprotective benefits of EBN and its potential effect as a cognitive enhancer. Notably, the current challenges and the future study direction in EBN have been demonstrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Su-Peng Loh
- Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
- *Correspondence: Su-Peng Loh
| | - Shi-Hui Cheng
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Semenyih, Malaysia
| | - Wael Mohamed
- Clinical Pharmacology Department, Menoufia Medical School, Menoufia University, Shebin El Kom, Egypt
- Basic Medical Science Department, Kulliyyah of Medicine, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), Selayang, Malaysia
- Wael Mohamed
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Schifano F, Catalani V, Sharif S, Napoletano F, Corkery JM, Arillotta D, Fergus S, Vento A, Guirguis A. Benefits and Harms of 'Smart Drugs' (Nootropics) in Healthy Individuals. Drugs 2022; 82:633-647. [PMID: 35366192 DOI: 10.1007/s40265-022-01701-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
'Smart drugs' (also known as 'nootropics' and 'cognitive enhancers' [CEs]) are being used by healthy subjects (i.e. students and workers) typically to improve memory, attention, learning, executive functions and vigilance, hence the reference to a 'pharmaceutical cognitive doping behaviour'. While the efficacy of known CEs in individuals with memory or learning deficits is well known, their effect on non-impaired brains is still to be fully assessed. This paper aims to provide an overview on the prevalence of use; putative neuroenhancement benefits and possible harms relating to the intake of the most popular CEs (e.g. amphetamine-type stimulants, methylphenidate, donepezil, selegiline, modafinil, piracetam, benzodiazepine inverse agonists, and unifiram analogues) in healthy individuals. CEs are generally perceived by the users as effective, with related enthusiastic anecdotal reports; however, their efficacy in healthy individuals is uncertain and any reported improvement temporary. Conversely, since most CEs are stimulants, the related modulation of central noradrenaline, glutamate, and dopamine levels may lead to cardiovascular, neurological and psychopathological complications. Furthermore, use of CEs can be associated with paradoxical short- and long-term cognitive decline; decreased potential for plastic learning; and addictive behaviour. Finally, the non-medical use of any potent psychotropic raises serious ethical and legal issues, with nootropics having the potential to become a major public health concern. Further studies investigating CE-associated social, psychological, and biological outcomes are urgently needed to allow firm conclusions to be drawn on the appropriateness of CE use in healthy individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabrizio Schifano
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane Campus, Hatfield, UK.
| | - Valeria Catalani
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane Campus, Hatfield, UK
| | - Safia Sharif
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane Campus, Hatfield, UK
| | - Flavia Napoletano
- East London Foundation Trust (ELFT), Newham Early Intervention Service, London, UK
| | - John Martin Corkery
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane Campus, Hatfield, UK
| | - Davide Arillotta
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane Campus, Hatfield, UK
| | - Suzanne Fergus
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane Campus, Hatfield, UK
| | - Alessandro Vento
- Department of Mental Health, ASL Roma 2, Rome, Italy
- Addictions' Observatory (ODDPSS), Rome, Italy
- Department of Psychology, Guglielmo Marconi University, Rome, Italy
| | - Amira Guirguis
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane Campus, Hatfield, UK
- Swansea University Medical School, Institute of Life Sciences 2, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, UK
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Abyadeh M, Gupta V, Paulo JA, Gupta V, Chitranshi N, Godinez A, Saks D, Hasan M, Amirkhani A, McKay M, Salekdeh GH, Haynes PA, Graham SL, Mirzaei M. A Proteomic View of Cellular and Molecular Effects of Cannabis. Biomolecules 2021; 11:1411. [PMID: 34680044 PMCID: PMC8533448 DOI: 10.3390/biom11101411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Revised: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 09/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabis (Cannabis sativa), popularly known as marijuana, is the most commonly used psychoactive substance and is considered illicit in most countries worldwide. However, a growing body of research has provided evidence of the therapeutic properties of chemical components of cannabis known as cannabinoids against several diseases including Alzheimer's disease (AD), multiple sclerosis (MS), Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia and glaucoma; these have prompted changes in medicinal cannabis legislation. The relaxation of legal restrictions and increased socio-cultural acceptance has led to its increase in both medicinal and recreational usage. Several biochemically active components of cannabis have a range of effects on the biological system. There is an urgent need for more research to better understand the molecular and biochemical effects of cannabis at a cellular level, to understand fully its implications as a pharmaceutical drug. Proteomics technology is an efficient tool to rigorously elucidate the mechanistic effects of cannabis on the human body in a cell and tissue-specific manner, drawing conclusions associated with its toxicity as well as therapeutic benefits, safety and efficacy profiles. This review provides a comprehensive overview of both in vitro and in vivo proteomic studies involving the cellular and molecular effects of cannabis and cannabis-derived compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morteza Abyadeh
- ProGene Technologies Pty Ltd., Macquarie Park, Sydney, NSW 2113, Australia;
| | - Vivek Gupta
- Macquarie Medical School, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia; (N.C.); (A.G.); (D.S.); (S.L.G.)
| | - Joao A. Paulo
- Department of Cell Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA;
| | - Veer Gupta
- School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC 2600, Australia;
| | - Nitin Chitranshi
- Macquarie Medical School, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia; (N.C.); (A.G.); (D.S.); (S.L.G.)
| | - Angela Godinez
- Macquarie Medical School, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia; (N.C.); (A.G.); (D.S.); (S.L.G.)
| | - Danit Saks
- Macquarie Medical School, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia; (N.C.); (A.G.); (D.S.); (S.L.G.)
| | - Mafruha Hasan
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia;
| | - Ardeshir Amirkhani
- Australian Proteome Analysis Facility, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia;
| | - Matthew McKay
- Bowel Cancer and Biomarker Laboratory, Kolling Institute, Northern Clinical School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia;
| | - Ghasem H. Salekdeh
- Department of Molecular Sciences, Macquarie University, Macquarie Park, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia; (G.H.S.); (P.A.H.)
| | - Paul A. Haynes
- Department of Molecular Sciences, Macquarie University, Macquarie Park, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia; (G.H.S.); (P.A.H.)
| | - Stuart L. Graham
- Macquarie Medical School, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia; (N.C.); (A.G.); (D.S.); (S.L.G.)
| | - Mehdi Mirzaei
- Macquarie Medical School, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia; (N.C.); (A.G.); (D.S.); (S.L.G.)
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Smith KE, Rogers JM, Strickland JC, Epstein DH. When an obscurity becomes trend: social-media descriptions of tianeptine use and associated atypical drug use. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DRUG AND ALCOHOL ABUSE 2021; 47:455-466. [PMID: 33909525 DOI: 10.1080/00952990.2021.1904408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Background: Originally believed to be an atypical antidepressant acting at serotonin transporters, tianeptine is now known to also be an atypical agonist at mu-opioid receptors. Its nonmedical use may be increasing amidst the broader context of novel drug and supplement use.Objectives: To analyze social-media text from current, former, and prospective tianeptine users for better understanding of their conceptualizations of tianeptine, motives for and patterns of use, and reported benefits and harms.Methods: Reddit posts were obtained and thematically coded; additional quantitative analyses were conducted.Results: A total of 210 posts mentioning tianeptine were made between 2012 and 2020. Eighteen thematic categories were identified, 10 of which were consistent with expected themes. Two independent raters coded all text, generating 1,382 unique codes, of which 1,090 were concordant (78.9% interrater agreement). Tianeptine use was frequently associated with use of other drugs, particularly kratom, phenibut, and racetams. People conceptualized and variously used tianeptine as an opioid, antidepressant, and "nootropic" (cognitive enhancer). Between 2014 and 2020, mentions of positive effects decreased, while mentions of adverse effects and withdrawal increased. Motivations for use included substitution or withdrawal mitigation for other drugs (especially opioids) and for kratom itself; self-treatment for psychiatric symptoms; and improvement of quality of life, mood, or performance. Descriptions of tolerance, withdrawal, and addiction were evident. Intravenous use was rare and strongly discouraged, with detrimental effects described.Conclusion: Tianeptine is recognized as an opioid (though not only an opioid) in online communities. Posts describe benefits, acute risks, and patterns of co-use that warrant greater clinical attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten E Smith
- National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jeffery M Rogers
- National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Justin C Strickland
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - David H Epstein
- National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Sharif S, Guirguis A, Fergus S, Schifano F. The Use and Impact of Cognitive Enhancers among University Students: A Systematic Review. Brain Sci 2021; 11:355. [PMID: 33802176 PMCID: PMC8000838 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11030355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Revised: 03/01/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Cognitive enhancers (CEs), also known as "smart drugs", "study aids" or "nootropics" are a cause of concern. Recent research studies investigated the use of CEs being taken as study aids by university students. This manuscript provides an overview of popular CEs, focusing on a range of drugs/substances (e.g., prescription CEs including amphetamine salt mixtures, methylphenidate, modafinil and piracetam; and non-prescription CEs including caffeine, cobalamin (vitamin B12), guarana, pyridoxine (vitamin B6) and vinpocetine) that have emerged as being misused. The diverted non-prescription use of these molecules and the related potential for dependence and/or addiction is being reported. It has been demonstrated that healthy students (i.e., those without any diagnosed mental disorders) are increasingly using drugs such as methylphenidate, a mixture of dextroamphetamine/amphetamine, and modafinil, for the purpose of increasing their alertness, concentration or memory. AIM To investigate the level of knowledge, perception and impact of the use of a range of CEs within Higher Education Institutions. METHODOLOGY A systematic review was conducted in adherence with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Whilst 1400 studies were identified within this study through a variety of electronic databases (e.g., 520 through PubMed, 490 through Science Direct and 390 through Scopus), 48 papers were deemed relevant and were included in this review. RESULTS The most popular molecules identified here included the stimulant CEs, e.g., methylphenidate, modafinil, amphetamine salt mixtures and caffeine-related compounds; stimulant CEs' intake was more prevalent among males than females; drugs were largely obtained from friends and family, as well as via the Internet. It is therefore suggested that CEs are increasingly being used among healthy individuals, mainly students without any diagnosed cognitive disorders, to increase their alertness, concentration, or memory, in the belief that these CEs will improve their performance during examinations or when studying. The impact of stimulant CEs may include tolerance, dependence and/or somatic (e.g., cardiovascular; neurological) complications. DISCUSSION The availability of CEs for non-medical indications in different countries is influenced by a range of factors including legal, social and ethical factors. Considering the risk factors and motivations that encourage university students to use CE drugs, it is essential to raise awareness about CE-related harms, counteract myths regarding "safe" CE use and address cognitive enhancement in an early stage during education as a preventative public health measure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Safia Sharif
- Psychopharmacology, Substance Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK; (S.S.); (F.S.)
| | - Amira Guirguis
- Psychopharmacology, Substance Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK; (S.S.); (F.S.)
- Institute of Life Sciences 2, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, Wales, UK
| | - Suzanne Fergus
- Psychopharmacology, Substance Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK; (S.S.); (F.S.)
| | - Fabrizio Schifano
- Psychopharmacology, Substance Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK; (S.S.); (F.S.)
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Daubner J, Arshaad MI, Henseler C, Hescheler J, Ehninger D, Broich K, Rawashdeh O, Papazoglou A, Weiergräber M. Pharmacological Neuroenhancement: Current Aspects of Categorization, Epidemiology, Pharmacology, Drug Development, Ethics, and Future Perspectives. Neural Plast 2021; 2021:8823383. [PMID: 33519929 PMCID: PMC7817276 DOI: 10.1155/2021/8823383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent pharmacoepidemiologic studies suggest that pharmacological neuroenhancement (pNE) and mood enhancement are globally expanding phenomena with distinctly different regional characteristics. Sociocultural and regulatory aspects, as well as health policies, play a central role in addition to medical care and prescription practices. The users mainly display self-involved motivations related to cognitive enhancement, emotional stability, and adaptivity. Natural stimulants, as well as drugs, represent substance abuse groups. The latter comprise purines, methylxanthines, phenylethylamines, modafinil, nootropics, antidepressants but also benzodiazepines, β-adrenoceptor antagonists, and cannabis. Predominant pharmacodynamic target structures of these substances are the noradrenergic/dopaminergic and cholinergic receptor/transporter systems. Further targets comprise adenosine, serotonin, and glutamate receptors. Meta-analyses of randomized-controlled studies in healthy individuals show no or very limited verifiability of positive effects of pNE on attention, vigilance, learning, and memory. Only some members of the substance abuse groups, i.e., phenylethylamines and modafinil, display positive effects on attention and vigilance that are comparable to caffeinated drinks. However, the development of new antidementia drugs will increase the availability and the potential abuse of pNE. Social education, restrictive regulatory measures, and consistent medical prescription practices are essential to restrict the phenomenon of neuroenhancement with its social, medical, and ethical implications. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the highly dynamic field of pharmacological neuroenhancement and elaborates the dramatic challenges for the medical, sociocultural, and ethical fundaments of society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Daubner
- Experimental Neuropsychopharmacology, Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices (Bundesinstitut für Arzneimittel und Medizinprodukte, BfArM), Kurt-Georg-Kiesinger-Allee 3, 53175 Bonn, Germany
| | - Muhammad Imran Arshaad
- Experimental Neuropsychopharmacology, Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices (Bundesinstitut für Arzneimittel und Medizinprodukte, BfArM), Kurt-Georg-Kiesinger-Allee 3, 53175 Bonn, Germany
| | - Christina Henseler
- Experimental Neuropsychopharmacology, Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices (Bundesinstitut für Arzneimittel und Medizinprodukte, BfArM), Kurt-Georg-Kiesinger-Allee 3, 53175 Bonn, Germany
| | - Jürgen Hescheler
- Institute of Neurophysiology, University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine, Robert-Koch-Str. 39, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Dan Ehninger
- Molecular and Cellular Cognition, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (Deutsches Zentrum für Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen, DZNE), Sigmund-Freud-Str. 27, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - Karl Broich
- Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices (Bundesinstitut für Arzneimittel und Medizinprodukte, BfArM), Kurt-Georg-Kiesinger-Allee 3, 53175 Bonn, Germany
| | - Oliver Rawashdeh
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Anna Papazoglou
- Experimental Neuropsychopharmacology, Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices (Bundesinstitut für Arzneimittel und Medizinprodukte, BfArM), Kurt-Georg-Kiesinger-Allee 3, 53175 Bonn, Germany
| | - Marco Weiergräber
- Experimental Neuropsychopharmacology, Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices (Bundesinstitut für Arzneimittel und Medizinprodukte, BfArM), Kurt-Georg-Kiesinger-Allee 3, 53175 Bonn, Germany
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Zaami S, Minutillo A, Sirignano A, Marinelli E. Effects of Appearance- and Performance-Enhancing Drugs on Personality Traits. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:730167. [PMID: 34630182 PMCID: PMC8497711 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.730167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 08/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Appearance- and performance-enhancing drugs (APEDs) are commonly used by adolescents and young adults in an effort to improve not only athletic performance but also physical and mental efficiency and sexual appearance. The rationale for using these drugs is grounded in the perceived importance of external appearance, the quest for health and youth, and the urge to boost one's sexual performances. Although APED users tend to be quite moderate overall, some specific subpopulations can display pathological use associated with high-risk behaviors. A wide and diverse range of APEDs is now easily accessible to almost anyone through backdoor online avenues. Common APEDs include anabolic-androgenic steroids, non-steroidal anabolics, anorectics, diuretics and ergo/thermogenics, nootropics or "cognition enhancers," licit and illicit psychostimulants, and finally, sexual enhancers. The use of APEDs appears linked to several psychopathological disorders of unclear prevalence, e.g., body image disorders and eating disorders, perfectionism, but also depression and loneliness. The role of personality traits related to APED use has been investigated in adolescents and young adults, in elite and amateur athletes, and in chemsexers and associated with the above-reported personality traits. The studies herein analyzed show that APED consumption in the general population is quickly growing into a public health concern. It is therefore essential to launch prevention and intervention projects aimed at promoting safe instrumental use of the body, not only in sports disciplines but also among the general population, and to promote psychological aid procedures for people with substance use issues, depression and anxiety, and body image disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Zaami
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Adele Minutillo
- National Centre on Addiction and Doping, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Ascanio Sirignano
- School of Law, Medico-Legal Section, University of Camerino, Camerino, Italy
| | - Enrico Marinelli
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
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