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Vealan K, Joseph N, Alimat S, Karumbati AS, Thilakavathy K. Lateral flow assay: a promising rapid point-of-care testing tool for infections and non-communicable diseases. ASIAN BIOMED 2023; 17:250-266. [PMID: 38161347 PMCID: PMC10754503 DOI: 10.2478/abm-2023-0068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
The point-of-care testing (POCT) approach has established itself as having remarkable importance in diagnosing various infectious and non-communicable diseases (NCDs). The POCT approach has succeeded in meeting the current demand for having diagnostic strategies that can provide fast, sensitive, and highly accurate test results without involving complicated procedures. This has been accomplished by introducing rapid bioanalytical tools or biosensors such as lateral flow assays (LFAs). The production cost of these tools is very low, allowing developing countries with limited resources to utilize them or produce them on their own. Thus, their use has grown in various fields in recent years. More importantly, LFAs have created the possibility for a new era of incorporating nanotechnology in disease diagnosis and have already attained significant commercial success worldwide, making POCT an essential approach not just for now but also for the future. In this review, we have provided an overview of POCT and its evolution into the most promising rapid diagnostic approach. We also elaborate on LFAs with a special focus on nucleic acid LFAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kumaravel Vealan
- Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang43400, Malaysia
| | - Narcisse Joseph
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang43400, Malaysia
| | - Sharizah Alimat
- Department of Chemistry Malaysia, Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Petaling Jaya46661, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Anandi S. Karumbati
- Centre for Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, Institute for Stem Cell Science and Regenerative Medicine, Bangalore560065, India
| | - Karuppiah Thilakavathy
- Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang43400, Malaysia
- Malaysian Research Institute on Ageing (MyAgeing), Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang43400, Selangor, Malaysia
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Shoaib A, Javed S, Wahab S, Azmi L, Tabish M, Sultan MH, Abdelsalam K, Alqahtani SS, Ahmad MF. Cellular, Molecular, Pharmacological, and Nano-Formulation Aspects of Thymoquinone-A Potent Natural Antiviral Agent. Molecules 2023; 28:5435. [PMID: 37513307 PMCID: PMC10383476 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28145435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2023] [Revised: 07/09/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The goal of an antiviral agent research is to find an antiviral drug that reduces viral growth without harming healthy cells. Transformations of the virus, new viral strain developments, the resistance of viral pathogens, and side effects are the current challenges in terms of discovering antiviral drugs. The time has come and it is now essential to discover a natural antiviral agent that has the potential to destroy viruses without causing resistance or other unintended side effects. The pharmacological potency of thymoquinone (TQ) against different communicable and non-communicable diseases has been proven by various studies, and TQ is considered to be a safe antiviral substitute. Adjunctive immunomodulatory effects in addition to the antiviral potency of TQ makes it a major compound against viral infection through modulating the production of nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species, decreasing the cytokine storm, and inhibiting endothelial dysfunction. Nevertheless, TQ's low oral bioavailability, short half-life, poor water solubility, and conventional formulation are barriers to achieving its optimal pharmacologic benefits. Nano-formulation proposes numerous ways to overcome these obstacles through a small particle size, a big surface area, and a variety of surface modifications. Nano-based pharmaceutical innovations to combat viral infections using TQ are a promising approach to treating surmounting viral infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ambreen Shoaib
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
- Pharmacy Practice Research Unit (PPRU), College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Shamama Javed
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Shadma Wahab
- Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Khalid University, Abha 62529, Saudi Arabia
| | - Lubna Azmi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Lucknow, Lucknow 226007, India
| | - Mohammad Tabish
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Shaqra University, Shaqra 11961, Saudi Arabia
| | - Muhammad H Sultan
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Karim Abdelsalam
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
- Pharmacy Practice Research Unit (PPRU), College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Saad S Alqahtani
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, King Khalid University, Abha 62529, Saudi Arabia
| | - Md Faruque Ahmad
- Department of Clinical Nutrition, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
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Xing Y, Li Y, Feng L, Huo R, Ma X, Dong Y, Liu D, Niu Y, Tian X, Chen E. Predictors of COVID-19 Severity in Elderly Patients Infected by Omicron in China, 18 December 2022-5 February 2023. Infect Drug Resist 2023; 16:4505-4518. [PMID: 37457796 PMCID: PMC10349581 DOI: 10.2147/idr.s418622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Accepted: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose To analyze the clinical characteristics and prognosis of patients hospitalized with non-severe, severe pneumonia and death in Omicron COVID-19. Patients and Methods We collected clinical data from 118 patients with COVID-19 in China from 18 December, 2022 and 5 February, 2023. According to the outcome, the patients were divided into non-severe group, severe group and death group. Subsequently, we statistically analyzed the general condition, clinical manifestations, laboratory parameters, NLR, MLR, PLR and HALP of these groups. We also retrospectively analyzed the possible factors affecting the prognostic regression of patients with COVID-19. Results A total of 118 COVID-19 patients were enrolled in this study, including 64 non-severe patients, 38 severe patients and 16 death patients. Compared with the non-severe group, T lymphocytes, B lymphocytes, Th1, Th2, Th17, Treg cells, IgA, IgG, IgM in the severe and death groups decreased more significantly (P<0.05). The levels of myocardial markers, ALT, AST, BUN, Cr, D-dimer, fibrinogen, NLR, MLR and PLR in the severe and death groups were significantly higher than those in the non-severe group (P<0.05). The level of HALP was significantly lower than that of non-severe group (P<0.05). MLR is not only an independent risk factor for the transition from non-severe to severe disease, but also an independent risk factor for predicting the possibility of death in COVID-19 patients. Conclusion The analysis of COVID-19 patients in China showed that severe patients were older, more likely to have related complications, lower lymphocyte count, liver and kidney function disorder, glucose and lipid metabolism disorders, myocardial injury, and abnormal coagulation function, suggesting the need for early anticoagulant therapy. In addition, NLR, MLR, PLR and HALP can be used as biomarkers to evaluate the severity and prognosis of COVID-19 patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanqing Xing
- The Second Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yupeng Li
- The Second Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Liting Feng
- The Second Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Rujie Huo
- The Second Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xinkai Ma
- The Second Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yanting Dong
- The Second Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Dai Liu
- The Second Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yuheng Niu
- The First Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xinrui Tian
- The Second Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Erjing Chen
- The Second Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, People’s Republic of China
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Chakraborty S, Mallick D, Goswami M, Guengerich FP, Chakrabarty A, Chowdhury G. The Natural Products Withaferin A and Withanone from the Medicinal Herb Withania somnifera Are Covalent Inhibitors of the SARS-CoV-2 Main Protease. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2022; 85:2340-2350. [PMID: 36098617 PMCID: PMC9491402 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.2c00521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
The current COVID-19 pandemic caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) created a global health crisis. The ability of vaccines to protect immunocompromised individuals and from emerging new strains are major concerns. Hence antiviral drugs against SARS-CoV-2 are essential. The SARS-CoV-2 main protease Mpro is vital for replication and an important target for antivirals. Using CMap analysis and docking studies, withaferin A (wifA) and withanone (win), two natural products from the medicinal herb Withania somnifera (ashwagandha), were identified as promising candidates that can covalently inhibit the viral protease Mpro. Cell culture, enzymatic, LC-MS/MS, computational, and equilibrium dialysis based assays were performed. DFT calculations indicated that wifA and win can form stable adducts with thiols. The cytotoxicity of Mpro was significantly reduced by wifA and win. Both wifA and win were found to irreversibly inhibit 0.5 μM Mpro with IC50 values of 0.54 and 1.8 μM, respectively. LC-MS/MS analysis revealed covalent adduct formation with wifA at cysteines 145 and 300 of Mpro. The natural products wifA and win can irreversibly inhibit the SARS-CoV-2 main protease Mpro. Based on the work presented here we propose that both wifA and win have the potential to be safely used as preventative and therapeutic interventions for COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dibyendu Mallick
- Department of Chemistry, Presidency
University, Kolkata700073, India
| | - Mausumi Goswami
- Department of Chemistry, School of Advanced Sciences,
Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, TN632014,
India
| | - F. Peter Guengerich
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt
University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee37235, United
States
| | - Anindita Chakrabarty
- Department of Life Science, Shiv Nadar
University, Greater Noida, UP201314, India
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Fernandes RS, de Oliveira Silva J, Gomes KB, Azevedo RB, Townsend DM, de Paula Sabino A, Branco de Barros AL. Recent advances in point of care testing for COVID-19 detection. Biomed Pharmacother 2022; 153:113538. [PMID: 36076617 PMCID: PMC9371983 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2022.113538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2022] [Revised: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The World Health Organizations declaration of the COVID-19 pandemic was a milestone for the scientific community. The high transmission rate and the huge number of deaths, along with the lack of knowledge about the virus and the evolution of the disease, stimulated a relentless search for diagnostic tests, treatments, and vaccines. The main challenges were the differential diagnosis of COVID-19 and the development of specific, rapid, and sensitive tests that could reach all people. RT-PCR remains the gold standard for diagnosing COVID-19. However, new methods, such as other molecular techniques and immunoassays emerged. Also, the need for accessible tests with quick results boosted the development of point of care tests (POCT) that are fast, and automated, with high precision and accuracy. This assay reduces the dependence on laboratory conditions and mass testing of the population, dispersing the pressure regarding screening and detection. This review summarizes the advances in the diagnostic field since the pandemic started, emphasizing various laboratory techniques for detecting COVID-19. We reviewed the main existing diagnostic methods, as well as POCT under development, starting with RT-PCR detection, but also exploring other nucleic acid techniques, such as digital PCR, loop-mediated isothermal amplification-based assay (RT-LAMP), clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR), and next-generation sequencing (NGS), and immunoassay tests, and nanoparticle-based biosensors, developed as portable instruments for the rapid standard diagnosis of COVID-19.
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Mangla B, Javed S, Sultan MH, Ahsan W, Aggarwal G, Kohli K. Nanocarriers-Assisted Needle-Free Vaccine Delivery Through Oral and Intranasal Transmucosal Routes: A Novel Therapeutic Conduit. Front Pharmacol 2022; 12:757761. [PMID: 35087403 PMCID: PMC8787087 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.757761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Drug delivery using oral route is the most popular, convenient, safest and least expensive approach. It includes oral transmucosal delivery of bioactive compounds as the mucosal cavity offers an intriguing approach for systemic drug distribution. Owing to the dense vascular architecture and high blood flow, oral mucosal layers are easily permeable and can be an ideal site for drug administration. Recently, the transmucosal route is being investigated for other therapeutic candidates such as vaccines for their efficient delivery. Vaccines have the potential to trigger immune reactions and can act as both prophylactic and therapeutic conduit to a variety of diseases. Administration of vaccines using transmucosal route offers multiple advantages, the most important one being the needle-free (non-invasive) delivery. Development of needle-free devices are the most recent and pioneering breakthrough in the delivery of drugs and vaccines, enabling patients to avoid needles, reducing anxiety, pain and fear as well as improving compliance. Oral, nasal and aerosol vaccination is a novel immunization approach that utilizes a nanocarrier to administer the vaccine. Nanocarriers improve the bioavailability and serve as adjuvants to elicit a stronger immune response, resulting in increased effectiveness of vaccination. Drugs and vaccines with lower penetration abilities can also be delivered transmucosally while maintaining their biological function. The development of micro/nanocarriers for transmucosal delivery of macromolecules, vaccines and other substances is currently drawing much attention and a number of studies were performed recently. This comprehensive review is aimed to summarize the most recent investigations on needle-free and non-invasive approaches for the delivery of vaccines using oral transmucosal route, their strengths and associated challenges. The oral transmucosal vaccine delivery by nanocarriers is the most upcoming advancement in efficient vaccine delivery and this review would help further research and trials in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bharti Mangla
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Delhi Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research University (DPSRU), New Delhi, India
| | - Shamama Javed
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
| | - Muhammad H. Sultan
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
| | - Waquar Ahsan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
| | - Geeta Aggarwal
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Delhi Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research University, New Delhi, India
| | - Kanchan Kohli
- Director Research and Publication, Lloyd Institute of Management and Technology (Pharm.), Greater Noida, India
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Alhazmi HA, Najmi A, Javed SA, Sultana S, Al Bratty M, Makeen HA, Meraya AM, Ahsan W, Mohan S, Taha MME, Khalid A. Medicinal Plants and Isolated Molecules Demonstrating Immunomodulation Activity as Potential Alternative Therapies for Viral Diseases Including COVID-19. Front Immunol 2021; 12:637553. [PMID: 34054806 PMCID: PMC8155592 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.637553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Plants have been extensively studied since ancient times and numerous important chemical constituents with tremendous therapeutic potential are identified. Attacks of microorganisms including viruses and bacteria can be counteracted with an efficient immune system and therefore, stimulation of body’s defense mechanism against infections has been proven to be an effective approach. Polysaccharides, terpenoids, flavonoids, alkaloids, glycosides, and lactones are the important phytochemicals, reported to be primarily responsible for immunomodulation activity of the plants. These phytochemicals may act as lead molecules for the development of safe and effective immunomodulators as potential remedies for the prevention and cure of viral diseases. Natural products are known to primarily modulate the immune system in nonspecific ways. A number of plant-based principles have been identified and isolated with potential immunomodulation activity which justify their use in traditional folklore medicine and can form the basis of further specified research. The aim of the current review is to describe and highlight the immunomodulation potential of certain plants along with their bioactive chemical constituents. Relevant literatures of recent years were searched from commonly employed scientific databases on the basis of their ethnopharmacological use. Most of the plants displaying considerable immunomodulation activity are summarized along with their possible mechanisms. These discussions shall hopefully elicit the attention of researchers and encourage further studies on these plant-based immunomodulation products as potential therapy for the management of infectious diseases, including viral ones such as COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hassan A Alhazmi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia.,Substance Abuse and Toxicology Research Centre, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
| | - Asim Najmi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
| | - Sadique A Javed
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
| | - Shahnaz Sultana
- Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammed Al Bratty
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hafiz A Makeen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdulkarim M Meraya
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
| | - Waquar Ahsan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
| | - Syam Mohan
- Substance Abuse and Toxicology Research Centre, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
| | - Manal M E Taha
- Substance Abuse and Toxicology Research Centre, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
| | - Asaad Khalid
- Substance Abuse and Toxicology Research Centre, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
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Diniz LRL, Souza MTDS, Duarte ABS, de Sousa DP. Mechanistic Aspects and Therapeutic Potential of Quercetin against COVID-19-Associated Acute Kidney Injury. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25235772. [PMID: 33297540 PMCID: PMC7730372 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25235772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Revised: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The inflammatory mediator and oxidant agent storm caused by the SARS-CoV-2 infection has been strongly associated with the failure of vital organs observed in critically ill patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and the death of thousands of infected people around the world. Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common renal disorder characterized by a sudden and sustained decrease in renal function with a critical influence on poor prognosis and lethal clinical outcomes of various etiologies, including some viral infection diseases. It is known that oxidative stress and inflammation play key roles in the pathogenesis and development of AKI. Quercetin is a natural substance that has multiple pharmacological properties, such as anti-inflammatory action, and is used as a dietary supplement. There is evidence of the anti-coronavirus activities of this compound, including against the target SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro. The ability to inhibit coronavirus and its inflammatory processes is strongly desired in a new drug for the treatment of COVID-19. Therefore, in this review, the dual effect of quercetin is discussed from a mechanistic perspective in relation to AKI kidney injury and its nephroprotective potential to SARS-CoV-2 patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lúcio Ricardo Leite Diniz
- Department of Nursing, College of Nordeste da Bahia, 48590-000 Coronel João Sá, Bahia, Brazil
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +55-75-3286-2268
| | | | - Allana Brunna Sucupira Duarte
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Paraíba, 58051-970 João Pessoa, PB, Brazil; (A.B.S.D.); (D.P.d.S.)
| | - Damião Pergentino de Sousa
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Paraíba, 58051-970 João Pessoa, PB, Brazil; (A.B.S.D.); (D.P.d.S.)
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Agarwal KM, Mohapatra S, Sharma P, Sharma S, Bhatia D, Mishra A. Study and overview of the novel corona virus disease (COVID-19). SENSORS INTERNATIONAL 2020; 1:100037. [PMID: 34766042 PMCID: PMC7474965 DOI: 10.1016/j.sintl.2020.100037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2020] [Revised: 09/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In December 2019, a new disease with pneumonia-like symptoms was spreading throughout Wuhan in China which was entitled as novel coronavirus disease or COVID -19 caused by the virus SARS CoV-2. Within a span of a few days, this disease became a global threat and was termed as a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) on March 11, 2020, since then the disease has affected more than 1.5 crore people worldwide and around 6.9 lakh people in India as of July 5, 2020. The origin of the COVID-19 disease has been traced back to the bats, but the intermediary contact is unknown. The disease spreads by respiratory droplets and contaminated surfaces. In most cases, the virus shows mild symptoms like fever, fatigue, dyspnea, cough, etc. which may become severe if appropriate precautions are not adhered to. For people with comorbidities (usually elderly) the disease may turn deadly and cause pneumonia, Acute Respiratory Disease Syndrome (ARDS), and multi-organ failure, thereby affecting a person's ability to breathe leading to being put on the ventilator support. The reproduction number (Rℴ) of COVID-19 is much higher than its predecessors and genetically similar diseases like SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV. This paper discusses the epidemiological characteristics of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, its phylogenetic relationship with the previous pandemic causing viruses such as SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV and analyzes the various responses to this global pandemic worldwide, focusing on the actions taken by India and their outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krishna Mohan Agarwal
- Mechanical Engineering Department, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, 201301, India
| | - Swati Mohapatra
- Department of Microbial Technology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, 201301, India
| | - Prairit Sharma
- Mechanical Engineering Department, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, 201301, India
| | - Shreya Sharma
- Department of Biotechnology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, 201301, India
| | - Dinesh Bhatia
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, North Eastern Hill University, Shillong, 793022, Meghalaya, India
| | - Animesh Mishra
- Department of Cardiology, North Eastern Indira Gandhi Regional Institute of Health and Medical Sciences, Shillong, 793018, Meghalaya, India
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