Optimal Development of Youth Athletes Toward Elite Athletic Performance: How to Coach Their Motivation, Plan Exercise Training, and Pace the Race

Relationship between Workload, Psychological State and Recovery in Female Soccer Athletes

This study assessed the multifaceted relations between measures of workload, psychological state, and recovery throughout an entire soccer season in female collegiate soccer athletes (19.8±1.2 yrs, 132±12.3 lbs, 63±3.2 in). A prospective longitudinal study was utilized to measure workload (GPS training load, Rate of Perceived Exertion (RPE), psychological state (mental stress, mental fatigue, and mood), and recovery (sleep duration, sleep quality, and soreness), during 90 observations (59 training sessions and 21 games). Separate linear-mixed effect models were used to assess outcomes of RPE, soreness, and sleep duration. A linear mixed-effects model explained 59% of the variance in RPE following each session. Specifically, each standard deviation increase in GPS load and mental stress in the morning prior to training increased RPE by 1.46 (SE=0.08) and 0.29 (SE=0.07), respectively, following that day's training. Furthermore, a significant interaction was found between several predictor variables and chronological day in the season while predicting RPE. Specifically, for each standard deviation increase in GPS load, RPE went up by 0.0055 per day during the season suggesting that load had a higher impact on RPE as the season progressed. In contrast, the interaction of day by mental stress, sleep duration, and soreness continued to be stronger as the season progressed. Each linear mixed-effect model predicted a larger amount of variance when accounting for individual variations in the random effects.

Unraveling the Role of (Meta-) Cognitive Functions in Pacing Behavior Development during Adolescence: Planning, Monitoring, and Adaptation

PURPOSE

This study aimed to investigate whether (meta-) cognitive functions underpin the development of the self-regulated distribution of effort during exercise (i.e., pacing) throughout adolescence.

METHODS

Participants included 18 adolescents (9 girls, 15.6 ± 2.5 yr old) and 26 adults (13 women, 26.8 ± 3.1 yr old), all recreationally active but unfamiliar with time trial cycling. The (meta-) cognitive functions involved in preexercise planning were quantified by calculating the difference between estimated and actual finish time during a 4-km cycling time trial. The capability to monitor and adapt one's effort distribution during exercise was measured during a 7-min submaximal trial, in which the participants were tasked with adhering to a set submaximal goal velocity either with (0-5 min) or without (5-7 min) additional feedback provided by the researcher. Analyses included between-group comparisons (ANOVA) and within-group comparisons (correlation) ( P < 0.05).

RESULTS

Adolescents were less accurate in their estimation of the task duration. The adolescents' overestimation of task duration of the 4-km time trial was accompanied by pacing behavior characteristics resembling a longer trial (i.e., more even power output distribution, lower RPE, more pronounced end-spurt). Contrary to the adults, the adolescents deviated relatively more from the goal velocity during the 7-min submaximal trial, when no additional feedback was provided by the researcher. Within the adolescent group, estimation of task duration accuracy ( r = 0.48) and adherence to goal velocity ( r = 0.59) correlated with age.

CONCLUSIONS

The (meta-) cognitive functions involved in the preexercise planning and the monitoring and adaptation of the distribution of effort during exercise underpin the development of pacing behavior during adolescence. Feedback from the (social) environment can be used to aid the monitoring and adaptation of effort expenditure in adolescents.

Pacing Behavior Development in Adolescent Swimmers: A Large-Scale Longitudinal Data Analysis

PURPOSE

This study aimed to use a large-scale longitudinal design to investigate the development of the distribution of effort (e.g., pacing) in adolescent swimmers, specifically disentangling the effects of age and experience and differentiating between performance levels in adulthood.

METHODS

Season best times and 50-m split times of 100- and 200-m freestyle swimmers from five continents were gathered between 2000 and 2021. Included swimmers competed in a minimum of three seasons between 12 and 24 yr old (5.3 ± 1.9 seasons) and were categorized by performance level in adulthood (elite, sub-elite, high-competitive; 100-m: n = 3498 (47% female); 200-m: n = 2230 (56% female)). Multilevel models in which repeated measures (level 1) were nested within individual swimmers (level 2) were estimated to test the effects of age, race experience, and adult performance level on the percentage of total race time spent in each 50-m section ( P < 0.05).

RESULTS

In the 100-m, male swimmers develop a relatively faster first 50-m when becoming older. This behavior also distinguishes elite from high-competitive swimmers. No such effects were found for female swimmers. Conversely, more experienced male and female swimmers exhibit a slower initial 50-m. With age and race experience, swimmers develop a more even velocity distribution in the 200-m. Adolescent swimmers reaching the elite level adopt a more even behavior compared with high-competitive. This differentiation occurs at a younger age in female (>13 yr) compared with male (>16 yr) swimmers.

CONCLUSIONS

Pacing behavior development throughout adolescence is driven by age-related factors besides race experience. Swimmers attaining a higher performance level during adulthood exhibit a pacing behavior that better fits the task demands during adolescence. Monitoring and individually optimizing the pacing behavior of young swimmers is an important step toward elite performance.

Pacing Behaviour Development and Acquisition: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

The goal-directed decision-making process of effort distribution (i.e. pacing) allows individuals to efficiently use energy resources as well as to manage the impact of fatigue on performance during exercise. Given the shared characteristics between pacing behaviour and other skilled behaviour, it was hypothesized that pacing behaviour would adhere to the same processes associated with skill acquisition and development.

METHODS

PubMed, Web of Science and PsycINFO databases between January 1995 and January 2022 were searched for articles relating to the pacing behaviour of individuals (1) younger than 18 years of age, or (2) repeatedly performing the same exercise task, or (3) with different levels of experience.

RESULTS

The search resulted in 64 articles reporting on the effect of age (n = 33), repeated task exposure (n = 29) or differing levels of experience (n = 13) on pacing behaviour. Empirical evidence identifies the development of pacing behaviour starts during childhood (~ 10 years old) and continues throughout adolescence. This development is characterized by an increasingly better fit to the task demands, encompassing the task characteristics (e.g. duration) and environment factors (e.g. opponents). Gaining task experience leads to an increased capability to attain a predetermined pace and results in pacing behaviour that better fits task demands.

CONCLUSIONS

Similar to skilled behaviour, physical maturation and cognitive development likely drive the development of pacing behaviour. Pacing behaviour follows established processes of skill acquisition, as repeated task execution improves the match between stimuli (e.g. task demands and afferent signals) and actions (i.e. continuing, increasing or decreasing the exerted effort) with the resulting exercise task performance. Furthermore, with increased task experience attentional capacity is freed for secondary tasks (e.g. incorporating opponents) and the goal selection is changed from achieving task completion to optimizing task performance. As the development and acquisition of pacing resemble that of other skills, established concepts in the literature (e.g. intervention-induced variability and augmented feedback) could enrich pacing research and be the basis for practical applications in physical education, healthcare, and sports.

The Effect of Verbal Encouragement on Performance and Muscle Fatigue in Swimming

Background and Objectives: Verbal encouragement (VE) can be used to enhance performance in several sports, even though no studies have been conducted among swimmers and only a few effects have been reported in elite athletes. Besides influencing motor performance, VE is also known to enhance the physical load, thus potentially increasing the probability of developing fatigue. With this in mind, this study aimed to explore the effects of VE in swimmers in order to fill in the knowledge gap concerning the aquatic environment. Materials and Methods: Each athlete swam a maximal 200 m freestyle trial under two different conditions: one trial with VE and the other without VE. The two main outcome measures were: (1) performance velocity (m/s); and (2) muscle fatigue, investigated by means of surface electromyography. Sixty swimmers were recruited, aged 18.63 ± 3.46 years (median 18 years), 28 men (47%), and 32 women (53%), with 7.03 ± 3.9 years of experience. Results: With VE, performance significantly improved in the swim trial (p < 0.001, effect size (ES) −0.95, large). When breaking the results down into the first half (first (0−100 m) vs. the second half (100−200 m)), the ES was large in the first part (−1.11), indicating an improvement in performance. This worsened, however, in the second part of the trial (ES 0.63). In the multivariate analysis, years of experience were found to be a significant predictor of the change in overall performance (p = 0.011). There was a significant increase in muscle fatigue induced by VE, overall, and during the second half, but not during the first half of the trial. Conclusions: The present study indicates that VE during a middle-distance event (200 m) increases performance most in swimmers with little experience. However, it has a negative impact on fatigue.

Repeated Sprint Protocols With Standardized Versus Self-Selected Recovery Periods in Elite Youth Soccer Players: Can They Pace Themselves? A Replication Study

PURPOSE

Replicating the studies of Gibson et al and Brownstein et al to assess performance, and physiological, and perceived variables during a repeated sprint protocol (RSP) with standardized versus self-selected recovery in youth soccer players.

METHODS

Nineteen male soccer players (age 13.1 [1.3] y) completed 2 separate RSPs. RSP1: 10 × 30-m sprints with 30-second recovery and RSP2: 10 × 30-m sprints interspersed with self-selected recovery periods. Mean time of both 10 × 30-m RSPs and self-selected recovery periods of RSP2 were assessed. Heart rate, blood lactate concentration, and rates of perceived exertion were measured following RSPs.

RESULTS

RSP2 revealed longer recovery periods (RSP1: 30.0 [0.0] s; RSP2: 39.0 [7.7] s; P < .001; effect size d = 1.648) with shorter repeated sprint time (mean 30-m sprint time: RSP1: 4.965 [0.256] s; RSP2: 4.865 [0.227] s; P = .014; d = 0.414). Blood lactate concentration (P = .002-.005; d = 0.730-0.958), heart rate (P < .001; d = 1.353), and rates of perceived exertion (RSP1: 14.9 [1.9]; RSP2: 12.9 [2.1]; P = .016; d = 1.046) were higher following RSP1.

CONCLUSION

In contrast to the original studies, the present replication study demonstrated that self-selected recovery periods during a RSP leads to better repeated sprint performance compared with standardized recovery periods in youth soccer players. The better repeated sprint performance with individual recovery durations in RSP2 was achieved with less physiological and perceived effort.

The Impact of Four High-Altitude Training Camps on the Aerobic Capacity of a Short Track PyeongChang 2018 Olympian: A Case Study

This study characterizes high-altitude training camps and their effect on the aerobic capacity of a Polish national team member (M.W.), who was a participant in the PyeongChang 2018 Winter Olympic Games (body weight: 59.6 kg, body height: 161.0 cm, fat mass: 10.9 kg and 18.3% of fat tissue, fat-free mass: 48.7 kg, muscle mass: 46.3 kg, and BMI = 23.0 kg/m²). The tests were conducted in the periods from April 2018 to September 2018 and April 2019 to September 2019 (period of general and special preparation). The study evaluated aerobic and anaerobic capacity determined by laboratory tests, a cardiopulmonary graded exercise test to exhaustion performed on a cycle ergometer (CPET), and the Wingate anaerobic test. Based on the research, training in hypobaric conditions translated into significant improvements in the skater’s exercise capacity recorded after participating in the Olympic Winter Games in Korea (February 2018). In the analyzed period (2018–2019), there was a significant increase in key parameters of aerobic fitness such as anaerobic threshold power output (AT-PO) [W]—223; power output POmax [W]—299 and AT-PO [W/kg]—3.50; (POmax) [W/kg]—4.69; and AT-VO₂ [mL/kg/min]—51.3; VO₂max [mL/kg/min]—61.0. The athlete showed high-exercise-induced adaptations and improvements in the aerobic metabolic potential after two seasons, in which four training camps were held in altitude conditions.

Training During the COVID-19 Lockdown: Knowledge, Beliefs, and Practices of 12,526 Athletes from 142 Countries and Six Continents

Objective

Our objective was to explore the training-related knowledge, beliefs, and practices of athletes and the influence of lockdowns in response to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2).

Methods

Athletes (n = 12,526, comprising 13% world class, 21% international, 36% national, 24% state, and 6% recreational) completed an online survey that was available from 17 May to 5 July 2020 and explored their training behaviors (training knowledge, beliefs/attitudes, and practices), including specific questions on their training intensity, frequency, and session duration before and during lockdown (March–June 2020).

Results

Overall, 85% of athletes wanted to “maintain training,” and 79% disagreed with the statement that it is “okay to not train during lockdown,” with a greater prevalence for both in higher-level athletes. In total, 60% of athletes considered “coaching by correspondence (remote coaching)” to be sufficient (highest amongst world-class athletes). During lockdown, < 40% were able to maintain sport-specific training (e.g., long endurance [39%], interval training [35%], weightlifting [33%], plyometric exercise [30%]) at pre-lockdown levels (higher among world-class, international, and national athletes), with most (83%) training for “general fitness and health maintenance” during lockdown. Athletes trained alone (80%) and focused on bodyweight (65%) and cardiovascular (59%) exercise/training during lockdown. Compared with before lockdown, most athletes reported reduced training frequency (from between five and seven sessions per week to four or fewer), shorter training sessions (from ≥ 60 to < 60 min), and lower sport-specific intensity (~ 38% reduction), irrespective of athlete classification.

Conclusions

COVID-19-related lockdowns saw marked reductions in athletic training specificity, intensity, frequency, and duration, with notable within-sample differences (by athlete classification). Higher classification athletes had the strongest desire to “maintain” training and the greatest opposition to “not training” during lockdowns. These higher classification athletes retained training specificity to a greater degree than others, probably because of preferential access to limited training resources. More higher classification athletes considered “coaching by correspondence” as sufficient than did lower classification athletes. These lockdown-mediated changes in training were not conducive to maintenance or progression of athletes’ physical capacities and were also likely detrimental to athletes’ mental health. These data can be used by policy makers, athletes, and their multidisciplinary teams to modulate their practice, with a degree of individualization, in the current and continued pandemic-related scenario. Furthermore, the data may drive training-related educational resources for athletes and their multidisciplinary teams. Such upskilling would provide athletes with evidence to inform their training modifications in response to germane situations (e.g., COVID related, injury, and illness).

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40279-021-01573-z.

Pacing behaviour of middle-long distance running & race-walking athletes at the IAAF U18 and U20 World Championship finals

ABSTRACTThe current study analysed the pacing behaviour of athletes competing in the middle-long track event finals of the IAAF Under 18 and Under 20 World Championships between 2015 and 2018. Official finishing times, 1000-m split times and positioning data of 116 female and 153 male athletes, competing in the middle-long distance running (3000 m, 5000 m and 10,000 m) and race walking (5000 m and 10,000 m) events, were gathered. Repeated measures analysis of variance, with 1000-m speed as within-subjects factor and final ranking (medallist, Top 8 or Top 12, rest of the field) as between-subjects factor, was performed to compare the pacing behaviour between athletes. Positioning of the athletes was analysed by Kendall tau-b (T_b) correlation between the intermediate position and final position. Overall, medallists increased their speed throughout a race, with the exception of the 5000 m running event, in which a parabolic pacing behaviour was exhibited. The 1000-m segment in which a significant (P > 0.05) difference in speed was exhibited between differently ranked athletes coincided with a strong (T_b> 0.7) correlation between intermediate and final positioning. These combined results point towards a separation between the athletes during the race, as the Top 8 or Top 12 and the rest of the field are unable to match the speed of the medallists. The distance, discipline, sex, age category and behaviour of competitors all influence the pacing behaviour of young track athletes during international level competition, emphasising the importance and complexity of developing adequate pacing behaviour in track athletes. HighlightsThe distribution of effort over an exercise task (i.e. pacing) is an important factor in endurance exercise competition. The pacing behaviour of athletes is determined by many aspects, such as the biomechanical characteristics of the task, the exercise environment and the age of the athleteSport specific competition data from youth athlete sports events can provide insight into the pacing behaviour of developing athletes. These insights could assist in the optimalisation of the development of pacing behaviour of young athletes in the future.The current study analysed the 1000-m split times and positioning data of athletes competing in the running (3000 m, 5000 m and 10,000) and racewalking (5000 m and 10,000m) finals of the U18 and U20 IAAF world-championship.The difference in final ranking impacted the pacing behaviour of the athletes, with the medallists increasing their speed throughout the race and the other athletes separating from the medallists either early (rest of field) or later in the race (Top 8 or Top 12 athletes).

Compassionate Coach and Psychological Quality of Life in Portuguese Athletes: Effect of Mediating Variables

This study aimed to test a model that hypothesized that the compassionate coach, as perceived by the athletes, has an impact on athlete-related social safeness and psychological health, through shame and self-criticism. The sample comprised 270 Portuguese adult athletes, who practiced different competitive sports. The path analysis results confirmed the adequacy of the proposed model, which explained 45% of the psychological health’s variance. Results demonstrated that athletes who perceive their coaches as more compassionate tend to present higher levels of social safeness (feelings of belonging to the team) and of psychological health, through lower levels of shame and self-criticism. These novel findings suggest the importance of the adoption of supportive, warm, safe, and compassionate attitudes from coaches in athletes’ mental health. This study also offers important insights by suggesting that feelings of acceptance and connectedness in team relationships may be at the root of athletes’ emotional processes and well-being.

The Ability of Runners to Identify Spatial and Temporal Variables of Speed During Endurance Running

This study aimed to evaluate spatial and temporal perception in endurance runners as a mechanism of pacing control in comparison with other athletes (soccer players). A group of 38 endurance runners and 32 soccer players participated in this study. Runners displayed lower time differences and lower error than soccer players. Taking the athletic levels of endurance runners into consideration, significant differences (p = .011, Cohen's d = 1.042) were found in the time differences (higher level group = 33.43 ± 29.43 vs. lower level group = 123.53 ±102.61). Significant correlations were found between time differences and performance in a Cooper test (r = -.546) and with the best time in a half marathon (r = .597). Temporal and spatial perception can be considered as a cognitive skill of endurance runners.