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Pellegrino FJ, Risso A, Corrada Y, Gambaro RC, Seoane AI. Influence of dietary fish oil supplementation on DNA damage in peripheral blood lymphocytes of nine healthy dogs. Vet Rec Open 2021; 8:e12. [PMID: 34188940 PMCID: PMC8219285 DOI: 10.1002/vro2.12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2019] [Revised: 04/13/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fish oil (FO) supplementation as a source of omega 3 fatty acids is associated with beneficial effects on health. However, high unsaturated fatty acid content in the diet could result in increased lipid peroxidation and damage to proteins, lipids and DNA. We evaluated the effect of dietary FO supplementation on DNA damage in peripheral blood lymphocytes of dogs. Additionally, we determined the effect of FO supplementation on lipid peroxidation and lipid profile of these dogs. METHODS Healthy male dogs (n = 9) were randomly assigned to one of two diets during 90 days: control (CG, n = 4), based on a commercial food, and FO (FOG, n = 5), the same food supplemented with 1000 mg FO. Blood samples were collected on days -1, 30, 60 and 90. DNA damage was assessed with the comet assay, and the damage index was obtained. Malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were determined as an indicator of lipid peroxidation. Lipid profile determination included serum triglyceride, cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein and high-density lipoprotein levels (HDL). RESULTS Damage index values (arbitrary units) were lower in FOG on day 30 (CG, 13.7 ± 2.5; FOG, 6.5 ± 2.5), 60 (CG, 14.7 ± 2.5; FOG, 3.5 ± 2.5) and 90 (CG, 15.5 ± 2.5; FOG, 3.0 ± 2.5) compared with CG (treatment × time interaction, p < 0.01). Serum MDA and HDL concentrations were lower in FOG compared with CG on day 60 and 90 (treatment × time interaction, p < 0.05). CONCLUSION These findings suggest that dietary FO supplementation did not induce DNA damage in peripheral blood lymphocytes of healthy dogs, but rather reduced it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco J. Pellegrino
- School of Veterinary Sciences (FCV)National University of La Plata (UNLP)La PlataBuenos AiresArgentina
- National Council of Research and Technology (CONICET)Buenos AiresArgentina
- IGEVET – Institute of Veterinary Genetics “Ing. Fernando N. Dolout” (UNLP‐CONICET LA PLATA), FCV, UNLPLa PlataBuenos AiresArgentina
| | - Analía Risso
- School of Veterinary Sciences (FCV)National University of La Plata (UNLP)La PlataBuenos AiresArgentina
- National Council of Research and Technology (CONICET)Buenos AiresArgentina
- IGEVET – Institute of Veterinary Genetics “Ing. Fernando N. Dolout” (UNLP‐CONICET LA PLATA), FCV, UNLPLa PlataBuenos AiresArgentina
| | - Yanina Corrada
- School of Veterinary Sciences (FCV)National University of La Plata (UNLP)La PlataBuenos AiresArgentina
- National Council of Research and Technology (CONICET)Buenos AiresArgentina
| | - Rocío C. Gambaro
- IGEVET – Institute of Veterinary Genetics “Ing. Fernando N. Dolout” (UNLP‐CONICET LA PLATA), FCV, UNLPLa PlataBuenos AiresArgentina
| | - Analía I. Seoane
- School of Veterinary Sciences (FCV)National University of La Plata (UNLP)La PlataBuenos AiresArgentina
- National Council of Research and Technology (CONICET)Buenos AiresArgentina
- IGEVET – Institute of Veterinary Genetics “Ing. Fernando N. Dolout” (UNLP‐CONICET LA PLATA), FCV, UNLPLa PlataBuenos AiresArgentina
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Risso A, Pellegrino FJ, Corrada Y, Schinella G. Evaluation of Total Antioxidant Activity and Oxidative Stress in Seminal Plasma from Dogs Supplemented with Fish Oil and Vitamin E. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FERTILITY & STERILITY 2021; 15:15-19. [PMID: 33497042 PMCID: PMC7838757 DOI: 10.22074/ijfs.2021.6226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Accepted: 08/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Background We evaluated the effect of fish oil (FO) and FO in addition to vitamin E (VE) supplementation on total
antioxidant activity of dog seminal plasma, and further assessed oxidative stress. Additionally, we measured the effect
of this supplementation on hematological parameters and serum biochemistry. Materials and Methods In this experimental study, six male dogs were assigned to one of the following three groups
for a period of 60 days using a replicated 3×3 Latin square design: control (CG), FO (FOG) and FO in addition to
VE (FOEG). On days 0 and 60 of the trial, semen and blood samples were obtained. 2,2V-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzo-
thiazoline-6-sulfonate) (ABTS) and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assays were used to determine total
antioxidant activity. Oxidative stress was determined by measuring total sulfhydryl group (T-SH). Results Dogs supplemented with FO alone had a lower total antioxidant activity in seminal plasma (ABTS: -59.86% vs.
CG and -57.3% vs. FOEG; and FRAP: -37.3% vs. CG and -40.5% vs. FOEG), and higher oxidative stress (T-SH: +53.0%
vs. CG and+60.2% vs. FOEG) compared with the other two groups (P<0.05). Serum triglyceride (TG) concentration de-
creased in FOG and FOEG compared with CG, on day 60 (P<0.01). Conclusion We concluded that total antioxidant activitydecreased and oxidative stress increased in seminal plasma of
dogs after FO supplementation for 60 days.
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Affiliation(s)
- Analía Risso
- National Council of Research and Technology (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Institute of Veterinary Genetics (IGEVET, CONICET LA PLATA), School of Veterinary Sciences (FCV), National University of La Plata (UNLP), La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Francisco Javier Pellegrino
- National Council of Research and Technology (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Institute of Veterinary Genetics (IGEVET, CONICET LA PLATA), School of Veterinary Sciences (FCV), National University of La Plata (UNLP), La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Yanina Corrada
- National Council of Research and Technology (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Guillermo Schinella
- School of Medical Sciences (FCM, UNLP); Institute of Health Sciences (National University Arturo Jauretche-CICPBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Kobayashi M, Okada Y, Ueno H, Mizorogi T, Ohara K, Kawasumi K, Suruga K, Kadokura K, Ohnishi Y, Arai T. Effects of Supplementation with Anti-Inflammatory Compound Extracted from Herbs in Healthy and Obese Cats. VETERINARY MEDICINE-RESEARCH AND REPORTS 2020; 11:39-44. [PMID: 32215260 PMCID: PMC7084122 DOI: 10.2147/vmrr.s240516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2019] [Accepted: 01/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Background Obesity has become a serious public health problem all over the world, and prevalence of obesity has increased in cats. Obesity is characterized by continuous low-grade inflammation based on oxidative stress by excessively produced reactive oxygen species (ROS). Supplementation with anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory compounds is very effective to relieve the obesity condition. A plant extract mixture containing Rhus verniciflua and some other herbs, Rv-PEM01-99, shows anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory effects in animals. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of supplementation with Rv-PEM01-99 as an anti-inflammatory compound in healthy and obese cats. Materials and Methods Ten healthy mix breed cats and four obesity disease cats were used. The healthy cats were randomly divided into control and test groups. Anti-inflammatory compound, Rv-PEM01-99, in which quercetin derivative is the main component, was supplemented to the healthy test group and the obesity disease cats at the dose of 100–120 mg/kg/day (2.5–3.0 mg/kg/day as quercetin) for 4 weeks. Metabolites, hormones and enzymes were measured before and after the compound supplementation. Results The anti-inflammatory compound supplementation decreased serum amyloid A (SAA) concentrations as inflammatory markers in both healthy and obesity disease cats. In obesity disease cats, plasma total cholesterol concentrations and AST and ALT activities decreased significantly after the compound supplementation. Conclusion Quercetin derivative seems to have strong anti-inflammatory activities. In the healthy cats, anti-inflammatory compound supplementation decreased plasma NEFA and SAA concentrations. In the obesity disease cats, the compound supplementation may have alleviated obesity disease by relieving inflammation and improvement of lipid metabolism in livers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Motoo Kobayashi
- Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, School of Veterinary Medicine, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, Tokyo 180-8601, Japan.,One Health Co. Ltd, Tokyo 157-0066, Japan
| | - Yuki Okada
- Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, School of Veterinary Medicine, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, Tokyo 180-8601, Japan.,One Health Co. Ltd, Tokyo 157-0066, Japan
| | - Hiromichi Ueno
- Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, School of Veterinary Medicine, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, Tokyo 180-8601, Japan
| | - Takayuki Mizorogi
- Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, School of Veterinary Medicine, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, Tokyo 180-8601, Japan
| | - Kenji Ohara
- Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, School of Veterinary Medicine, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, Tokyo 180-8601, Japan
| | - Koh Kawasumi
- Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, School of Veterinary Medicine, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, Tokyo 180-8601, Japan
| | - Kohei Suruga
- Food Function R&D Division, International Operation Department, Kibun Foods Inc., Tokyo 206-0812, Japan
| | - Kazunari Kadokura
- Food Function R&D Division, International Operation Department, Kibun Foods Inc., Tokyo 206-0812, Japan
| | | | - Toshiro Arai
- Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, School of Veterinary Medicine, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, Tokyo 180-8601, Japan.,One Health Co. Ltd, Tokyo 157-0066, Japan
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Okada Y, Ueno H, Mizorogi T, Ohara K, Kawasumi K, Arai T. Diagnostic Criteria for Obesity Disease in Cats. Front Vet Sci 2019; 6:284. [PMID: 31508438 PMCID: PMC6718553 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2019.00284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2019] [Accepted: 08/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Accumulated visceral and subcutaneous fat masses were measured with computed tomography (CT) in cats with various body condition scores (BCS) from 5/9 to 9/9. BCS does not always reflect visceral fat accumulation which induces pro-inflammatory reactions. Obese cats with accumulated visceral fat showed low plasma adiponectin and high serum amyloid A (SAA) concentrations, an inflammatory marker. Based on the above results, new diagnostic criteria for obesity disease were established as follows. For overweight cats with high BCS of >7/9, showing two or more of the following three symptoms, low adiponectin concentrations, hyperlipidemia, and high SAA concentrations, categorizes them as having obesity disease. Cats with BCS 6/9-9/9, without inflammatory reactions, were classified as simple obesity, which is similar to metabolically healthy obesity (MHO) defined in human medicine. Simple obesity group showed significantly higher adiponectin concentrations than those in control group. The obesity disease group showed significantly higher plasma triglyceride (TG) and SAA concentrations and lower concentrations of adiponectin than the control group. Moreover, plasma glucose and malondialdehyde (MDA) concentrations in the obesity disease group were higher than those in healthy control group, although the differences were not statistically significant. Establishing criteria for obesity disease based on visceral fat accumulation and inflammation markers levels contributes to early and correct diagnosis of obesity in cats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Okada
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, Musashino, Japan
| | | | - Takayuki Mizorogi
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, Musashino, Japan
| | - Kenji Ohara
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, Musashino, Japan
| | - Koh Kawasumi
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, Musashino, Japan
| | - Toshiro Arai
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, Musashino, Japan
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Pellegrino FJ, Risso A, Relling AE, Corrada Y. Physical response of dogs supplemented with fish oil during a treadmill training programme. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl) 2018; 103:653-660. [PMID: 30520172 DOI: 10.1111/jpn.13033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2017] [Revised: 10/19/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The rise in popularity of dog sports competitions has led to the evaluation of improvements in dog physical performance. The potential benefit of dietary supplementation with fish oil (FO) on the physical performance of human beings and horses has been reported. However, such effect has not been studied in dogs. We therefore evaluated the effect of FO dietary supplementation on heart rate (HR), rectal temperature (RT) and thigh circumference (TC) in dogs during aerobic treadmill training, and further determined HR response and blood lactate (BL) concentration during an incremental exercise test. Using a cross-over design, eight male dogs were randomly assigned to two groups and received a standard balanced commercial diet (control, CG, n = 7) and the same diet supplemented with 54 mg FO/kg metabolic weight per day (FOG, n = 8). All dogs had 30-min treadmill sessions at 8 km/hr and 7.5% slope twice a week for 12 weeks. Assessment of HR and RT was performed before and immediately after each session; HR was also assessed 5 min after the end of each session. Thigh circumference was evaluated before each session. All dogs performed an incremental exercise test on the treadmill at 0, 6 and 12 weeks to evaluate HR response and BL concentration. Data were analysed using the mixed procedure (SAS 9.4). In FOG, pre-HR (-4.9%) and post-HR (-2.4%) values and post-RT (-0.3%) values were lower during treadmill training, whereas TC (+2.2%) values were higher as compared with CG (p < 0.01). Through the incremental exercise test, mean HR (week 6, -5.3%; week 12, -6.0%) values in FOG were lower than in CG (p < 0.05). In conclusion, FO supplementation slightly improved the physiological response of dogs to exercise during training.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Javier Pellegrino
- Laboratory of Veterinary Physiotherapy (LAFIVET), School of Veterinary Sciences (FCV), National University of La Plata (UNLP), Buenos Aires, Argentina.,National Council of Research and Technology (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Institute of Veterinary Genetics (IGEVET, UNLP-CONICET LA PLATA), FCV, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Analía Risso
- Laboratory of Veterinary Physiotherapy (LAFIVET), School of Veterinary Sciences (FCV), National University of La Plata (UNLP), Buenos Aires, Argentina.,National Council of Research and Technology (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Institute of Veterinary Genetics (IGEVET, UNLP-CONICET LA PLATA), FCV, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | | | - Yanina Corrada
- Laboratory of Veterinary Physiotherapy (LAFIVET), School of Veterinary Sciences (FCV), National University of La Plata (UNLP), Buenos Aires, Argentina.,National Council of Research and Technology (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
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van Leeuwen EM, Emri E, Merle BMJ, Colijn JM, Kersten E, Cougnard-Gregoire A, Dammeier S, Meester-Smoor M, Pool FM, de Jong EK, Delcourt C, Rodrigez-Bocanegra E, Biarnés M, Luthert PJ, Ueffing M, Klaver CCW, Nogoceke E, den Hollander AI, Lengyel I. A new perspective on lipid research in age-related macular degeneration. Prog Retin Eye Res 2018; 67:56-86. [PMID: 29729972 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2018.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2018] [Revised: 04/25/2018] [Accepted: 04/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
There is an urgency to find new treatment strategies that could prevent or delay the onset or progression of AMD. Different classes of lipids and lipoproteins metabolism genes have been associated with AMD in a multiple ways, but despite the ever-increasing knowledge base, we still do not understand fully how circulating lipids or local lipid metabolism contribute to AMD. It is essential to clarify whether dietary lipids, systemic or local lipoprotein metabolismtrafficking of lipids in the retina should be targeted in the disease. In this article, we critically evaluate what has been reported in the literature and identify new directions needed to bring about a significant advance in our understanding of the role for lipids in AMD. This may help to develop potential new treatment strategies through targeting the lipid homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth M van Leeuwen
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Ophthalmology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Eszter Emri
- Centre for Experimental Medicine, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom
| | - Benedicte M J Merle
- Univ. Bordeaux, Inserm, Bordeaux Population Health Research Center, Team LEHA, UMR 1219, F-33000, Bordeaux, France
| | - Johanna M Colijn
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Ophthalmology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Eveline Kersten
- Department of Ophthalmology, Radboud University Medical Center, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Audrey Cougnard-Gregoire
- Univ. Bordeaux, Inserm, Bordeaux Population Health Research Center, Team LEHA, UMR 1219, F-33000, Bordeaux, France
| | - Sascha Dammeier
- Centre for Ophthalmology, Institute for Ophthalmic Research, University of Tübingen, Germany
| | - Magda Meester-Smoor
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Ophthalmology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Eiko K de Jong
- Department of Ophthalmology, Radboud University Medical Center, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Cécile Delcourt
- Univ. Bordeaux, Inserm, Bordeaux Population Health Research Center, Team LEHA, UMR 1219, F-33000, Bordeaux, France
| | | | | | | | - Marius Ueffing
- Centre for Ophthalmology, Institute for Ophthalmic Research, University of Tübingen, Germany
| | - Caroline C W Klaver
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Ophthalmology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Ophthalmology, Radboud University Medical Center, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Everson Nogoceke
- Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Anneke I den Hollander
- Department of Ophthalmology, Radboud University Medical Center, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Department of Human Genetics, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Imre Lengyel
- Centre for Experimental Medicine, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom.
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Okada Y, Kobayashi M, Sawamura M, Arai T. Comparison of Visceral Fat Accumulation and Metabolome Markers among Cats of Varying BCS and Novel Classification of Feline Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome. Front Vet Sci 2017; 4:17. [PMID: 28261588 PMCID: PMC5306360 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2017.00017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2016] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
As in humans, obesity and its associated diseases represent the most significant threat to the health of veterinary populations. Previous human studies have provided insights into the risk factors of obesity, complex pathogenesis of obesity-associated diseases, and their life-threatening consequences. In humans, the “metabolic syndrome” represents a cluster of metabolic risk factors associated with the development of cardiovascular disease. Risk factors for metabolic syndrome, such as diabetes, obesity, high blood pressure, and its complications increase health-care utilization and medical expenses. Early diagnosis and intervention through preemptive approach is in need, and the new International Diabetes Federation definition of MS serves as the universally accepted diagnostic tool that is accessible in clinical settings. In veterinary populations, especially in cats, similar pathophysiological path and disease progression to the development of MS, such as adipokine dysregulations, chronic inflammation, lipotoxicity, are expected. The aim of this manuscript is twofold. First of all, it presents our preliminary feline obesity study that serves as the basis for discussion of obesity and its metabolic impact on feline population. In this study, we observed the effects of weight gain on energy metabolism using metabolome markers, such as adiponectin (ADN) and proinflammatory cytokines, in correlation with other common biochemical parameters in 14 clinically healthy cats of varying weight status. Further, we evaluated the visceral fat accumulation in three subjects of varying Body Condition Scores via computed tomography imaging and laparoscopic examination, and assessed the adipocyte type and size histologically. Mutually antagonizing changes in ADN and visceral adipose tissue (VAT) reflected the pathophysiological derangements leading to MS earlier than the common biochemical predictors such as glucose, liver values, and lipid markers. Second, it proposes the novel diagnostic and classification method of feline obesity and MS, based on the established diagnostic criteria of human MS and the presented study results. The results supported our novel “classification of feline obesity” and “Feline MS diagnostic criteria,” suggesting the need to complement ADN measurement with VAT volume to better understand the pathogenesis of metabolic disturbances in the feline population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Okada
- Department of Veterinary Bioscience, School of Veterinary Medicine, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University , Musashino , Japan
| | | | | | - Toshiro Arai
- Department of Veterinary Bioscience, School of Veterinary Medicine, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University , Musashino , Japan
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Abstract
Obesity is not a cosmetic or social issue; it is an animal health issue. The metabolic effects of obesity on insulin resistance and development of hyperlipidemia and the mechanical stress excess weight places on the musculoskeletal system are well established in the literature. Additional health risks from obesity, such as fatty accumulation in the liver, intestinal bacterial dysbiosis, and changes to renal architecture, are less well understood, but have been demonstrated to occur clinically in obese animals and may lead to deleterious long-term health effects. Keeping dogs and cats lean lowers their risk for development of certain diseases and leads to a longer and better quality of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa P Weeth
- Weeth Nutrition Services, 25 Chester Street, Edinburgh EH3 7EN, UK; Clinical Nutrition Department, Telemedicine Services, Gulf Coast Veterinary Specialists, 1111 West Loop South, Houston, TX 77027, USA.
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