1
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Bergoglio M, Rossegger E, Schlögl S, Griesser T, Waly C, Arbeiter F, Sangermano M. Multi-Material 3D Printing of Biobased Epoxy Resins. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:1510. [PMID: 38891457 PMCID: PMC11174478 DOI: 10.3390/polym16111510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2024] [Revised: 05/22/2024] [Accepted: 05/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Additive manufacturing (AM) has revolutionised the manufacturing industry, offering versatile capabilities for creating complex geometries directly from a digital design. Among the various 3D printing methods for polymers, vat photopolymerisation combines photochemistry and 3D printing. Despite the fact that single-epoxy 3D printing has been explored, the fabrication of multi-material bioderived epoxy thermosets remains unexplored. This study introduces the feasibility and potential of multi-material 3D printing by means of a dual-vat Digital Light Processing (DLP) technology, focusing on bioderived epoxy resins such as ELO (epoxidized linseed oil) and DGEVA (vanillin alcohol diglycidyl ether). By integrating different materials with different mechanical properties into one sample, this approach enhances sustainability and offers versatility for different applications. Through experimental characterisation, including mechanical and thermal analysis, the study demonstrates the ability to produce structures composed of different materials with tailored mechanical properties and shapes that change on demand. The findings underscore the promising technology of dual-vat DLP technology applied to sustainable bioderived epoxy monomers, allowing sustainable material production and complex structure fabrication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Bergoglio
- Politecnico di Torino, Department of Applied Science and Technology, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Torino, Italy;
| | - Elisabeth Rossegger
- Polymer Competence Center Leoben GmbH, Sauraugasse 1, 8700 Leoben, Austria; (E.R.); (S.S.)
| | - Sandra Schlögl
- Polymer Competence Center Leoben GmbH, Sauraugasse 1, 8700 Leoben, Austria; (E.R.); (S.S.)
| | - Thomas Griesser
- Institute of Chemistry of Polymeric Materials, Montanuniversitaet Leoben, Otto Glöckel-Straße 2, 8700 Leoben, Austria;
| | - Christoph Waly
- Materials Science and Testing of Polymers, Montanuniversitaet Leoben, Otto Gloeckel-Strasse 2, 8700 Leoben, Austria; (C.W.); (F.A.)
| | - Florian Arbeiter
- Materials Science and Testing of Polymers, Montanuniversitaet Leoben, Otto Gloeckel-Strasse 2, 8700 Leoben, Austria; (C.W.); (F.A.)
| | - Marco Sangermano
- Politecnico di Torino, Department of Applied Science and Technology, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Torino, Italy;
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2
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Tan MWM, Wang H, Gao D, Huang P, Lee PS. Towards high performance and durable soft tactile actuators. Chem Soc Rev 2024; 53:3485-3535. [PMID: 38411597 DOI: 10.1039/d3cs01017a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/28/2024]
Abstract
Soft actuators are gaining significant attention due to their ability to provide realistic tactile sensations in various applications. However, their soft nature makes them vulnerable to damage from external factors, limiting actuation stability and device lifespan. The susceptibility to damage becomes higher with these actuators often in direct contact with their surroundings to generate tactile feedback. Upon onset of damage, the stability or repeatability of the device will be undermined. Eventually, when complete failure occurs, these actuators are disposed of, accumulating waste and driving the consumption of natural resources. This emphasizes the need to enhance the durability of soft tactile actuators for continued operation. This review presents the principles of tactile feedback of actuators, followed by a discussion of the mechanisms, advancements, and challenges faced by soft tactile actuators to realize high actuation performance, categorized by their driving stimuli. Diverse approaches to achieve durability are evaluated, including self-healing, damage resistance, self-cleaning, and temperature stability for soft actuators. In these sections, current challenges and potential material designs are identified, paving the way for developing durable soft tactile actuators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Wei Ming Tan
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, 639798, Singapore.
- Singapore-HUJ Alliance for Research and Enterprise (SHARE), Smart Grippers for Soft Robotics (SGSR), Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), Singapore, 138602, Singapore
| | - Hui Wang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, 639798, Singapore.
| | - Dace Gao
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, 639798, Singapore.
| | - Peiwen Huang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, 639798, Singapore.
| | - Pooi See Lee
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, 639798, Singapore.
- Singapore-HUJ Alliance for Research and Enterprise (SHARE), Smart Grippers for Soft Robotics (SGSR), Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), Singapore, 138602, Singapore
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3
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Utrera-Barrios S, Steenackers N, Terryn S, Ferrentino P, Verdejo R, Van Asche G, López-Manchado MA, Brancart J, Hernández Santana M. Unlocking the potential of self-healing and recyclable ionic elastomers for soft robotics applications. MATERIALS HORIZONS 2024; 11:708-725. [PMID: 37997164 DOI: 10.1039/d3mh01312j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2023]
Abstract
In the field of soft robotics, current materials face challenges related to their load capacity, durability, and sustainability. Innovative solutions are required to address these problems beyond conventional strategies, which often lack long-term ecological viability. This study aims to overcome these limitations using mechanically robust, self-healing, and recyclable ionic elastomers based on carboxylated nitrile rubber (XNBR). The designed materials exhibited excellent mechanical properties, including tensile strengths (TS) exceeding 19 MPa and remarkable deformability, with maximum elongations (EB) over 650%. Moreover, these materials showed high self-healing capabilities, with 100% recovery efficiency of TS and EB at 110 °C after 3 to 5 h, and full recyclability, preserving their mechanical performance even after three recycling cycles. Furthermore, they were also moldable and readily scalable. Tendon-driven soft robotic grippers were successfully developed out of ionic elastomers, illustrating the potential of self-healing and recyclability in the field of soft robotics to reduce maintenance costs, increase material durability, and improve sustainability.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Utrera-Barrios
- Institute of Polymer Science and Technology (ICTP), CSIC, Juan de la Cierva 3, 28006 Madrid, Spain.
| | - N Steenackers
- Physical Chemistry and Polymer Science (FYSC), Department of Materials and Chemistry (MACH), Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
- Brubotics, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB) and Imec, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - S Terryn
- Physical Chemistry and Polymer Science (FYSC), Department of Materials and Chemistry (MACH), Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
- Brubotics, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB) and Imec, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - P Ferrentino
- Brubotics, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB) and Imec, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - R Verdejo
- Institute of Polymer Science and Technology (ICTP), CSIC, Juan de la Cierva 3, 28006 Madrid, Spain.
| | - G Van Asche
- Physical Chemistry and Polymer Science (FYSC), Department of Materials and Chemistry (MACH), Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - M A López-Manchado
- Institute of Polymer Science and Technology (ICTP), CSIC, Juan de la Cierva 3, 28006 Madrid, Spain.
| | - J Brancart
- Physical Chemistry and Polymer Science (FYSC), Department of Materials and Chemistry (MACH), Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - M Hernández Santana
- Institute of Polymer Science and Technology (ICTP), CSIC, Juan de la Cierva 3, 28006 Madrid, Spain.
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4
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Exley T, Hays E, Johnson D, Moridani A, Motati R, Jafari A. Toward a Unified Naming Scheme for Thermo-Active Soft Actuators: A Review of Materials, Working Principles, and Applications. ROBOTICS REPORTS (NEW ROCHELLE, N.Y.) 2024; 2:15-28. [PMID: 38584677 PMCID: PMC10996867 DOI: 10.1089/rorep.2023.0023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 04/09/2024]
Abstract
Soft robotics is a rapidly growing field that spans the fields of chemistry, materials science, and engineering. Due to the diverse background of the field, there have been contrasting naming schemes such as "intelligent," "smart," and "adaptive" materials, which add vagueness to the broad innovation among literature. Therefore, a clear, functional, and descriptive naming scheme is proposed in which a previously vague name-Soft Material for Soft Actuators-can remain clear and concise-Phase-Change Elastomers for Artificial Muscles. By synthesizing the working principle, material, and application into a naming scheme, the searchability of soft robotics can be enhanced and applied to other fields. The field of thermo-active soft actuators spans multiple domains and requires added clarity. Thermo-active actuators have potential for a variety of applications spanning virtual reality haptics to assistive devices. This review offers a comprehensive guide to selecting the type of thermo-active actuator when one has an application in mind. In addition, it discusses future directions and improvements that are necessary for implementation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trevor Exley
- Advanced Robotic Manipulators (ARM) Lab, the Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, USA
| | - Emilly Hays
- Advanced Robotic Manipulators (ARM) Lab, the Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, USA
| | - Daniel Johnson
- Advanced Robotic Manipulators (ARM) Lab, the Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, USA
| | - Arian Moridani
- Advanced Robotic Manipulators (ARM) Lab, the Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, USA
| | - Ramya Motati
- Advanced Robotic Manipulators (ARM) Lab, the Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, USA
| | - Amir Jafari
- Advanced Robotic Manipulators (ARM) Lab, the Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, USA
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5
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Lorero I, Rodríguez Á, Campo M, Prolongo SG. Development of an Electroactive and Thermo-Reversible Diels-Alder Epoxy Nanocomposite Doped with Carbon Nanotubes. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:4715. [PMID: 38139966 PMCID: PMC10747943 DOI: 10.3390/polym15244715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Revised: 12/09/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The manufacturing of Diels-Alder (D-A) crosslinked epoxy nanocomposites is an emerging field with several challenges to overcome: the synthesis is complex due to side reactions, the mechanical properties are hindered by the brittleness of these bonds, and the content of carbon nanotubes (CNT) added to achieve electroactivity is much higher than the percolation thresholds of other conventional resins. In this work, we develop nanocomposites with different D-A crosslinking ratios (0, 0.6, and 1.0) and CNT contents (0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, and 0.9 wt.%), achieving a simplified route and avoiding the use of solvents and side reactions by selecting a two-step curing method (100 °C-6 h + 60 °C-12 h) that generates the thermo-reversible resins. These reversible nanocomposites show ohmic behavior and effective Joule heating, reaching the dissociation temperatures of the D-A bonds. The fully reversible nanocomposites (ratio 1.0) present more homogeneous CNT dispersion compared to the partially reversible nanocomposites (ratio 0.6), showing higher electrical conductivity, as well as higher brittleness. For this study, the nanocomposite with a partially reversible matrix (ratio 0.6) doped with 0.7 CNT wt.% was selected to allow us to study its new smart functionalities and performance due to its reversible network by analyzing self-healing and thermoforming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isaac Lorero
- Materials Science and Engineering Area, Rey Juan Carlos University, C/Tulipán s/n, 28933 Móstoles, Madrid, Spain; (Á.R.); (M.C.)
| | - Álvaro Rodríguez
- Materials Science and Engineering Area, Rey Juan Carlos University, C/Tulipán s/n, 28933 Móstoles, Madrid, Spain; (Á.R.); (M.C.)
| | - Mónica Campo
- Materials Science and Engineering Area, Rey Juan Carlos University, C/Tulipán s/n, 28933 Móstoles, Madrid, Spain; (Á.R.); (M.C.)
| | - Silvia G. Prolongo
- Materials Science and Engineering Area, Rey Juan Carlos University, C/Tulipán s/n, 28933 Móstoles, Madrid, Spain; (Á.R.); (M.C.)
- Instituto de Tecnologías Para la Sostenibilidad, Rey Juan Carlos University, C/Tulipán s/n, 28933 Móstoles, Madrid, Spain
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6
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Wang HQ, Huang ZY, Yue DW, Wang FZ, Li CH. A variable-stiffness and healable pneumatic actuator. MATERIALS HORIZONS 2023; 10:908-917. [PMID: 36541242 DOI: 10.1039/d2mh01056a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Pneumatic-powered actuators are receiving increasing attention due to their widespread applications. However, their inherent low stiffness makes them incompetent in tasks requiring high load capacity or high force output. On the other hand, soft pneumatic actuators are susceptible to damage caused by over-pressuring or punctures by sharp objects. In this work, we designed and synthesized a coordination adaptable network (PETMP-AIM-Cu) with high mechanical rigidity (Young's modulus of 1.9 GPa and elongation <2% before fracturing) as well as excellent variable stiffness property (soft-rigid switching ability σ as high as 3 268 000 when ΔT = 90 °C). Combining PETMP-AIM-Cu with a self-healing elastomer based on dynamic disulfide bonds (LP-PDMS), we fabricated a new pneumatic actuator which shows high load capacity at room temperature, but can also easily deform upon heating and thus can be actuated pneumatically. Benefiting from the excellent self-healing ability of PETMP-AIM-Cu and LP-PDMS, the entire pneumatic actuator can still be actuated after being cut and healed. Such a variable-stiffness and healable pneumatic actuator would be useful for complex environmental applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Qin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Coordination Chemistry, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing National Laboratory of Microstructures, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, P. R. China.
| | - Zi-Yang Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Coordination Chemistry, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing National Laboratory of Microstructures, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, P. R. China.
| | - De-Wei Yue
- State Key Laboratory of Coordination Chemistry, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing National Laboratory of Microstructures, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, P. R. China.
| | - Fang-Zhou Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Coordination Chemistry, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing National Laboratory of Microstructures, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, P. R. China.
| | - Cheng-Hui Li
- State Key Laboratory of Coordination Chemistry, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing National Laboratory of Microstructures, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, P. R. China.
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7
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Liang H, Wei Y, Ji Y. Magnetic-responsive Covalent Adaptable Networks. Chem Asian J 2023; 18:e202201177. [PMID: 36645376 DOI: 10.1002/asia.202201177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2022] [Revised: 01/07/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Covalent adaptable networks (CANs) are reprocessable polymers whose structural arrangement is based on the recombination of dynamic covalent bonds. Composite materials prepared by incorporating magnetic particles into CANs attract much attention due to their remote and precise control, fast response speed, high biological safety and strong penetration of magnetic stimuli. These properties often involve magnetothermal effect and direct magnetic-field guidance. Besides, some of them can also respond to light, electricity or pH values. Thus, they are favorable for soft actuators since various functions are achieved such as magnetic-assisted self-healing (heating or at ambient temperature), welding (on land or under water), shape-morphing, and so on. Although magnetic CANs just start to be studied in recent two years, their advances are promised to expand the practical applications in both cutting-edge academic and engineering fields. This review aims to summarize recent progress in magnetic-responsive CANs, including their design, synthesis and application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huan Liang
- The Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry & Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, P. R. China
| | - Yen Wei
- The Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry & Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, P. R. China.,Department of Chemistry, Center for Nanotechnology and Institute of Biomedical Technology, Chung-Yuan Christian University Chung-Li, 32023, Taiwan, P. R. China
| | - Yan Ji
- The Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry & Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, P. R. China
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8
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Tauber FJ, Slesarenko V. Early career scientists converse on the future of soft robotics. Front Robot AI 2023; 10:1129827. [PMID: 36909362 PMCID: PMC9994530 DOI: 10.3389/frobt.2023.1129827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023] Open
Abstract
During the recent decade, we have witnessed an extraordinary flourishing of soft robotics. Rekindled interest in soft robots is partially associated with the advances in manufacturing techniques that enable the fabrication of sophisticated multi-material robotic bodies with dimensions ranging across multiple length scales. In recent manuscripts, a reader might find peculiar-looking soft robots capable of grasping, walking, or swimming. However, the growth in publication numbers does not always reflect the real progress in the field since many manuscripts employ very similar ideas and just tweak soft body geometries. Therefore, we unreservedly agree with the sentiment that future research must move beyond "soft for soft's sake." Soft robotics is an undoubtedly fascinating field, but it requires a critical assessment of the limitations and challenges, enabling us to spotlight the areas and directions where soft robots will have the best leverage over their traditional counterparts. In this perspective paper, we discuss the current state of robotic research related to such important aspects as energy autonomy, electronic-free logic, and sustainability. The goal is to critically look at perspectives of soft robotics from two opposite points of view provided by early career researchers and highlight the most promising future direction, that is, in our opinion, the employment of soft robotic technologies for soft bio-inspired artificial organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Falk J Tauber
- Cluster of Excellence livMatS, FIT-Freiburg Center for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies, University of Freiburg, Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany.,Plant Biomechanics Group (PBG) Freiburg, Botanic Garden of the University of Freiburg, Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
| | - Viacheslav Slesarenko
- Cluster of Excellence livMatS, FIT-Freiburg Center for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies, University of Freiburg, Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
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9
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Ferrentino P, Lopez-Diaz A, Terryn S, Legrand J, Brancart J, Van Assche G, Vazquez E, Vazquez A, Vanderborght B. Quasi-Static FEA Model for a Multi-Material Soft Pneumatic Actuator in SOFA. IEEE Robot Autom Lett 2022. [DOI: 10.1109/lra.2022.3183254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Antonio Lopez-Diaz
- ETS Ingeniería Industrial, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Seppe Terryn
- Brubotics, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Imec, Elsene, Belgium
| | - Julie Legrand
- Brubotics, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Imec, Elsene, Belgium
| | - Joost Brancart
- Physical Chemistry, Polymer Science, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Elsene, Belgium
| | - Guy Van Assche
- Physical Chemistry, Polymer Science, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Elsene, Belgium
| | - Ester Vazquez
- Instituto Regional Investigación Científica Aplicada, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Andres Vazquez
- ETS Ingeniería Industrial, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Ciudad Real, Spain
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10
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Terryn S, Brancart J, Roels E, Verhelle R, Safaei A, Cuvellier A, Vanderborght B, Van Assche G. Structure–Property Relationships of Self-Healing Polymer Networks Based on Reversible Diels–Alder Chemistry. Macromolecules 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.2c00434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Seppe Terryn
- Brubotics, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB) and Imec, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Joost Brancart
- Physical Chemistry and Polymer Science (FYSC), VUB, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Ellen Roels
- Brubotics, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB) and Imec, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Robrecht Verhelle
- Physical Chemistry and Polymer Science (FYSC), VUB, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Ali Safaei
- Physical Chemistry and Polymer Science (FYSC), VUB, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Audrey Cuvellier
- Physical Chemistry and Polymer Science (FYSC), VUB, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Bram Vanderborght
- Brubotics, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB) and Imec, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Guy Van Assche
- Physical Chemistry and Polymer Science (FYSC), VUB, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
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11
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Cerdan K, Brancart J, Roels E, Vanderborght B, Van Puyvelde P. Humins Blending in Thermoreversible Diels-Alder Networks for Stiffness Tuning and Enhanced Healing Performance for Soft Robotics. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14091657. [PMID: 35566827 PMCID: PMC9101211 DOI: 10.3390/polym14091657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Revised: 04/04/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Humins waste valorization is considered to be an essential pathway to improve the economic viability of many biorefinery processes and further promote their circularity by avoiding waste formation. In this research, the incorporation of humins in a Diels-Alder (DA) polymer network based on furan-maleimide thermoreversible crosslinks was studied. A considerable enhancement of the healing efficiency was observed by just healing for 1 h at 60 °C at the expense of a reduction of the material mechanical properties, while the unfilled material showed no healing under the same conditions. Nevertheless, the thermal healing step favored the irreversible humins polycondensation, thus strengthening the material while keeping the enhanced healing performance. Our hypothesis states a synergistic healing mechanism based on humins flowing throughout the damage, followed by thermal humins crosslinking during the healing trigger, together with DA thermoreversible bonds recombination. A multi-material soft robotic gripper was manufactured out of the proposed material, showing not only improved recovery of the functional performance upon healing but also stiffness-tunable features by means of humins thermal crosslinking. For the first time, both damage healing and zone reinforcement for further damage prevention are achieved in a single intrinsic self-healing system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth Cerdan
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Soft Matter, Rheology and Technology (SMaRT), KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200J, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium;
- Correspondence:
| | - Joost Brancart
- Physical Chemistry and Polymer Science (FYSC), Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium;
| | - Ellen Roels
- Brubotics and Imec, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium; (E.R.); (B.V.)
| | - Bram Vanderborght
- Brubotics and Imec, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium; (E.R.); (B.V.)
| | - Peter Van Puyvelde
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Soft Matter, Rheology and Technology (SMaRT), KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200J, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium;
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12
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Tabrizian SK, Sahraeeazartamar F, Brancart J, Roels E, Ferrentino P, Legrand J, Van Assche G, Vanderborght B, Terryn S. A Healable Resistive Heater as a Stimuli-Providing System in Self-Healing Soft Robots. IEEE Robot Autom Lett 2022. [DOI: 10.1109/lra.2022.3150033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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13
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Roels E, Terryn S, Iida F, Bosman AW, Norvez S, Clemens F, Van Assche G, Vanderborght B, Brancart J. Processing of Self-Healing Polymers for Soft Robotics. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2022; 34:e2104798. [PMID: 34610181 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202104798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Revised: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Soft robots are, due to their softness, inherently safe and adapt well to unstructured environments. However, they are prone to various damage types. Self-healing polymers address this vulnerability. Self-healing soft robots can recover completely from macroscopic damage, extending their lifetime. For developing healable soft robots, various formative and additive manufacturing methods have been exploited to shape self-healing polymers into complex structures. Additionally, several novel manufacturing techniques, noted as (re)assembly binding techniques that are specific to self-healing polymers, have been created. Herein, the wide variety of processing techniques of self-healing polymers for robotics available in the literature is reviewed, and limitations and opportunities discussed thoroughly. Based on defined requirements for soft robots, these techniques are critically compared and validated. A strong focus is drawn to the reversible covalent and (physico)chemical cross-links present in the self-healing polymers that do not only endow healability to the resulting soft robotic components, but are also beneficial in many manufacturing techniques. They solve current obstacles in soft robots, including the formation of robust multi-material parts, recyclability, and stress relaxation. This review bridges two promising research fields, and guides the reader toward selecting a suitable processing method based on a self-healing polymer and the intended soft robotics application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen Roels
- Brubotics, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB) and Imec, Pleinlaan 2, Brussels, 1050, Belgium
- Physical Chemistry and Polymer Science (FYSC), Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Pleinlaan 2, Brussels, 1050, Belgium
| | - Seppe Terryn
- Brubotics, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB) and Imec, Pleinlaan 2, Brussels, 1050, Belgium
- Physical Chemistry and Polymer Science (FYSC), Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Pleinlaan 2, Brussels, 1050, Belgium
| | - Fumiya Iida
- Machine Intelligence Lab, University of Cambridge, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, CB2 1PZ, UK
| | - Anton W Bosman
- SupraPolix B. V., Horsten 1.29, Eindhoven, 5612 AX, The Netherlands
| | - Sophie Norvez
- Chimie Moléculaire, Macromoléculaire, Matériaux, École Supérieure de Physique et de Chimie (ESPCI), 10 Rue Vauquelin, Paris, 75005, France
| | - Frank Clemens
- Laboratory for High Performance Ceramics, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology (EMPA), Überlandstrasse 129, Dübendorf, 8600, Switzerland
| | - Guy Van Assche
- Physical Chemistry and Polymer Science (FYSC), Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Pleinlaan 2, Brussels, 1050, Belgium
| | - Bram Vanderborght
- Brubotics, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB) and Imec, Pleinlaan 2, Brussels, 1050, Belgium
| | - Joost Brancart
- Physical Chemistry and Polymer Science (FYSC), Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Pleinlaan 2, Brussels, 1050, Belgium
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14
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Faseela KP, Benny AP, Kim Y, Baik S. Highly Conductive Strong Healable Nanocomposites via Diels-Alder Reaction and Filler-Polymer Covalent Bifunctionalization. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2022; 18:e2104764. [PMID: 34761523 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202104764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Revised: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Healable stretchable conductive nanocomposites have received considerable attention. However, there has been a trade-off between the filler-induced electrical conductivity (σ) and polymer-driven mechanical strength. Here significant enhancements in both σ and mechanical strength by designing reversible covalent bonding of the polymer matrix and filler-matrix covalent bifunctionalization are reported. A polystyrene-block-poly(ethylene-ran-butylene)-block-polystyrene grafted with maleic anhydride forms the strong reversible covalent bonding with furfuryl alcohol through the Diels-Alder reaction. Small (7.5 nm) and medium (117 nm) nanosatellite particles are generated by in situ etching of silver flakes, enabling electron tunneling-assisted percolation. The filler-polymer covalent bifunctionalization is achieved by 3-mercaptopropanoic acid. Altogether, this results in high σ (108 300 S m-1 ) and tensile strength (16.4 MPa), breaking the trade-off behavior. A nearly perfect (≈100%) healing efficiency is achieved in both σ and tensile strength. The conductive nanocomposite figure of merit (1.78 T Pa S m-1 ), defined by the product of σ and tensile strength, is orders of magnitude greater than the data in literature. The nanocomposite may find applications in healable strain sensors and electronic materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- K P Faseela
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Aby Paul Benny
- Department of Energy Science, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Yongjun Kim
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Seunghyun Baik
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 16419, Republic of Korea
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15
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A Pneumatic Novel Combined Soft Robotic Gripper with High Load Capacity and Large Grasping Range. ACTUATORS 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/act11010003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Pneumatic soft grippers have been widely studied. However, the structures and material properties of existing pneumatic soft grippers limit their load capacity and manipulation range. In this article, inspired by sea lampreys, we present a pneumatic novel combined soft gripper to achieve a high load capacity and a large grasping range. This soft gripper consists of a cylindrical soft actuator and a detachable sucker. Three internal air chambers of the cylindrical soft actuator are inflated, which enables them to hold objects. Under vacuum pressure, the cylindrical soft actuator and the detachable sucker can both adsorb objects. A finite element model was constructed to simulate three inflation chambers for predicting the grasping range of the cylindrical soft actuator. The validity of the finite element model was established by an experiment. The mechanism of holding force and adsorption force were analyzed. Several groups of experiments were conducted to determine adsorption range, holding force, and adsorption force. In addition, practical applications further indicated that the novel combined soft gripper has a high load capacity (10.85 kg) at a low pressure (16 kPa) and a large grasping range (minimum diameter of the object: d = 6 mm), being able to lift a variety of objects with different weights, material properties, and shapes.
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16
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The Influence of the Furan and Maleimide Stoichiometry on the Thermoreversible Diels-Alder Network Polymerization. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13152522. [PMID: 34372124 PMCID: PMC8347837 DOI: 10.3390/polym13152522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 07/19/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent work, the thermoreversible Diels–Alder reaction between furan and maleimide functional groups has been studied extensively in the context of self-healing elastomers and thermosets. To elaborate the influence of the stoichiometric ratio between the maleimide and furan reactive groups on the thermomechanical properties and viscoelastic behavior of formed reversible covalent polymer networks, a series of Diels–Alder-based networks with different stoichiometric ratios was synthesized. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) and dynamic rheology measurements were performed on the reversible polymer networks, to relate the reversible network structure to the material properties and reactivity. Such knowledge allows the design and optimization of the thermomechanical behavior of the reversible networks for intended applications. Lowering the maleimide-to-furan ratio creates a deficit of maleimide functional groups, resulting in a decrease in the crosslink density of the system, and a consequent decrease in the glass transition temperature, Young’s modulus, and gel transition temperature. The excess of unreacted furan in the system results in faster reaction and healing kinetics and a shift of the reaction equilibrium.
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17
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A Sensorized Soft Pneumatic Actuator Fabricated with Extrusion-Based Additive Manufacturing. ACTUATORS 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/act10050102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Soft pneumatic actuators with a channel network (pneu-net) based on thermoplastic elastomers are compatible with fused deposition modeling (FDM). However, conventional filament-based fused deposition modeling (FDM) printers are not well suited for thermoplastic elastomers with a shore hardness (Sh < 70A). Therefore, in this study, a pellet-based FDM printer was used to print pneumatic actuators with a shore hardness of Sh18A. Additionally, the method allowed the in situ integration of soft piezoresistive sensing elements during the fabrication. The integrated piezoresistive elements were based on conductive composites made of three different styrene-ethylene-butylene-styrene (SEBS) thermoplastic elastomers, each with a carbon black (CB) filler with a ratio of 1:1. The best sensor behavior was achieved by the SEBS material with a shore hardness of Sh50A. The dynamic and quasi-static sensor behavior were investigated on SEBS strips with integrated piezoresistive sensor composite material, and the results were compared with TPU strips from a previous study. Finally, the piezoresistive composite was used for the FDM printing of soft pneumatic actuators with a shore hardness of 18 A. It is worth mentioning that 3 h were needed for the fabrication of the soft pneumatic actuator with an integrated strain sensing element. In comparison to classical mold casting method, this is faster, since curing post-processing is not required and will help the industrialization of pneumatic actuator-based soft robotics.
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Sachyani Keneth E, Kamyshny A, Totaro M, Beccai L, Magdassi S. 3D Printing Materials for Soft Robotics. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2021; 33:e2003387. [PMID: 33164255 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202003387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Revised: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Soft robotics is a growing field of research, focusing on constructing motor-less robots from highly compliant materials, some are similar to those found in living organisms. Soft robotics has a high potential for applications in various fields such as soft grippers, actuators, and biomedical devices. 3D printing of soft robotics presents a novel and promising approach to form objects with complex structures, directly from a digital design. Here, recent developments in the field of materials for 3D printing of soft robotics are summarized, including high-performance flexible and stretchable materials, hydrogels, self-healing materials, and shape memory polymers, as well as fabrication of all-printed robots (multi-material printing, embedded electronics, untethered and autonomous robotics). The current challenges in the fabrication of 3D printed soft robotics, including the materials available and printing abilities, are presented and the recent activities addressing these challenges are also surveyed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ela Sachyani Keneth
- Casali Center of Applied Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry and the Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, 91904, Israel
| | - Alexander Kamyshny
- Casali Center of Applied Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry and the Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, 91904, Israel
| | - Massimo Totaro
- Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT) Soft BioRobotics Perception lab, Viale Rinaldo Piaggio 34, Pontedera, Pisa, 56025, Italy
| | - Lucia Beccai
- Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT) Soft BioRobotics Perception lab, Viale Rinaldo Piaggio 34, Pontedera, Pisa, 56025, Italy
| | - Shlomo Magdassi
- Casali Center of Applied Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry and the Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, 91904, Israel
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Programmable Stimuli-Responsive Actuators for Complex Motions in Soft Robotics: Concept, Design and Challenges. ACTUATORS 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/act9040131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
During the last years, great progress was made in material science in terms of concept, design and fabrication of new composite materials with conferred properties and desired functionalities. The scientific community paid particular interest to active soft materials, such as soft actuators, for their potential as transducers responding to various stimuli aiming to produce mechanical work. Inspired by this, materials engineers today are developing multidisciplinary approaches to produce new active matters, focusing on the kinematics allowed by the material itself more than on the possibilities offered by its design. Traditionally, more complex motions beyond pure elongation and bending are addressed by the robotics community. The present review targets encompassing and rationalizing a framework which will help a wider scientific audience to understand, sort and design future soft actuators and methods enabling complex motions. Special attention is devoted to recent progress in developing innovative stimulus-responsive materials and approaches for complex motion programming for soft robotics. In this context, a challenging overview of the new materials as well as their classification and comparison (performances and characteristics) are proposed. In addition, the great potential of soft transducers are outlined in terms of kinematic capabilities, illustrated by the related application. Guidelines are provided to design actuators and to integrate asymmetry enabling motions along any of the six basic degrees of freedom (translations and rotations), and strategies towards the programming of more complex motions are discussed. As a final note, a series of manufacturing methods are described and compared, from molding to 3D and 4D printing. The review ends with a Perspectives section, from material science and microrobotic points of view, on the soft materials’ future and close future challenges to be overcome.
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Abstract
Soft robots and devices exploit deformable materials that are capable of changes in shape to allow conformable physical contact for controlled manipulation. While the use of embedded sensors in soft actuation systems is gaining increasing interest, there are limited examples where the body of the actuator or robot is able to act as the sensing element. In addition, the conventional feedforward control method is widely used for the design of a controller, resulting in imprecise position control from a sensory input. In this work, we fabricate a soft self-sensing finger actuator using flexible carbon fibre-based piezoresistive composites to achieve an inherent sensing functionality and design a dual-closed-loop control system for precise actuator position control. The resistance change of the actuator body was used to monitor deformation and fed back to the motion controller. The experimental and simulated results demonstrated the effectiveness, robustness and good controllability of the soft finger actuator. Our work explores the emerging influence of inherently piezoresistive soft actuators to address the challenges of self-sensing, actuation and control, which can benefit the design of next-generation soft robots.
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