Etorphine-Azaperone Immobilisation for Translocation of Free-Ranging Masai Giraffes (Giraffa Camelopardalis Tippelskirchi): A Pilot Study

Training a Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata) for Voluntary Foot Radiographs at Dubai Safari Park

When 0.1 Reticulated Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata) began displaying signs of lameness and a persistent swelling of the front left pastern joint, an operant based training program was created for front foot radiographs to diagnose and better manage lameness. Using a protected contact set up, behaviour was shaped using a positive reinforcement procedure. A series of cued behaviors were trained and used to obtain dorsolateral palmar medial oblique front foot radiographs to aid vets in diagnosing the cause of lameness. By training giraffes for foot radiographs, potential causes of lameness could be identified and better managed. Long-term, the results may help zoos identify best practices for managing and preventing lameness in giraffe and subsequently improve welfare. Training animals to participate in their own medical care can improve welfare by giving them a sense of control within the situation. Training for medical procedures helps to reduce the stress imposed on the giraffe and the associated risks compared to alternative methods.

Effective Field Immobilisation and Capture of Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis)

One of the highest occurrences of mortalities among giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) takes place during immobilisations, captures and translocations. Common mistakes, human error, unforeseen risks, the awkward anatomy and the sheer size of the animal are leading factors for giraffes’ mortalities during these operations. Many risks can be circumvented but some risks are unpreventable, often due to terrain characteristics (rivers, deep ditches, holes and rocky terrain). From 2011 to 2021, seventy-five giraffes were successfully immobilised and captured to collect biological and physiological data from eight different study areas across South Africa. A 0% mortality and injury rate was achieved and, therefore, the techniques described in this paper are testimony to the advances and improvements of capture techniques and drugs. Biological information and capture experiences were noted for 75 immobilised giraffes, of which, knockdown time data were recorded for 43 individuals. Effective and safe immobilisation requires a competent team, proper planning, skill and knowledge. In this manuscript, we address procedures, techniques, ethical compliance, welfare and safety of the study animals. General experiences and lessons learned are also shared and should benefit future captures and immobilisations by limiting the risks involved. The sharing of experiences and information could influence and improve critical assessments of different capture techniques and can likely contribute to the success rate of immobilisation and translocation success for giraffes in the future.

Cryopreservation of Giraffe Epidydimal Spermatozoa Using Different Extenders and Cryoprotectants

Simple Summary

Giraffe numbers have been plummeting over the last 30 years by 30–40%. As such, efforts to manage in situ and ex situ populations are increasing. Assisted reproduction techniques such as sperm cryopreservation can help preserve the genetic diversity of giraffe subspecies or enhance genetic exchange between populations. However, to date, the post-thaw motility of recovered sperm has been variable. In this study, spermatozoa were collected from the epididymides of seven giraffes to investigate whether an alternative cryoprotectant could improve sperm motility following conventional cryopreservation. For this, we compared the motility and viability of sperm prior to and after freezing in three different extenders: a commercial equine extender (BotuCrio^®; Nidacon, Moedal, Schweden), a commercial bovine extender (Steridyl, Minitube, Tiefenbach, Germany), and an in-house “made” bovine egg yolk extender (TEY). Each was further supplemented with either glycerol or a mix of glycerol and methylformamide cryoprotectants. The results show that spermatozoa frozen with a mix of two cryoprotectants had significantly higher post-thaw motility compared to glycerol alone. Specifically, spermatozoa frozen in TEY and a mix of cryoprotectants achieved post-thaw sperm motility of 57 ± 3%. These results might serve as a blueprint for an improved protocol for giraffe sperm cryopreservation.

Abstract

Giraffe numbers have plummeted over the last 30 years by 30–40%. Thus, their conservation status has been raised from least concern to vulnerable. Efforts to manage in situ and ex situ populations are increasing. Assisted reproduction techniques (ART) such as sperm cryopreservation could help preserve the genetic diversity of giraffe subspecies and, when used for artificial inseminations, enhance genetic exchange between isolated populations. However, to date, the post-thaw motility of recovered sperm has been low and inconsistent. In this study, epididymal sperm collected from the testes of giraffes (n = 7) was frozen in three different extenders, namely, BotuCrio, Steridyl, and test egg yolk (TEY), each supplemented with one of two different cryoprotectants (5% glycerol or a mix of 1% glycerol and 4% methylformamide) and frozen over liquid nitrogen vapor. Across all three extenders, sperm showed significantly better post-thaw results when frozen with a mix of glycerol and methylformamide compared with glycerol alone. Sperm frozen with TEY and a mix of glycerol and methylformamide achieved superior post-thaw total and progressive sperm motility of 57 ± 3% and 45 ± 3%, respectively. These results show the benefit of using alternative cryoprotectants for freezing giraffe spermatozoa and could aid in the application of ARTs for giraffe subspecies or the closely related endangered Okapi.

Behaviour Classification on Giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) Using Machine Learning Algorithms on Triaxial Acceleration Data of Two Commonly Used GPS Devices and Its Possible Application for Their Management and Conservation

Averting today's loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services can be achieved through conservation efforts, especially of keystone species. Giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) play an important role in sustaining Africa's ecosystems, but are 'vulnerable' according to the IUCN Red List since 2016. Monitoring an animal's behavior in the wild helps to develop and assess their conservation management. One mechanism for remote tracking of wildlife behavior is to attach accelerometers to animals to record their body movement. We tested two different commercially available high-resolution accelerometers, e-obs and Africa Wildlife Tracking (AWT), attached to the top of the heads of three captive giraffes and analyzed the accuracy of automatic behavior classifications, focused on the Random Forests algorithm. For both accelerometers, behaviors of lower variety in head and neck movements could be better predicted (i.e., feeding above eye level, mean prediction accuracy e-obs/AWT: 97.6%/99.7%; drinking: 96.7%/97.0%) than those with a higher variety of body postures (such as standing: 90.7-91.0%/75.2-76.7%; rumination: 89.6-91.6%/53.5-86.5%). Nonetheless both devices come with limitations and especially the AWT needs technological adaptations before applying it on animals in the wild. Nevertheless, looking at the prediction results, both are promising accelerometers for behavioral classification of giraffes. Therefore, these devices when applied to free-ranging animals, in combination with GPS tracking, can contribute greatly to the conservation of giraffes.

Reference Intervals for Hematology and Clinical Chemistry for the African Elephant (Loxodonta africana)

The African elephant (Loxodonta africana) is listed as vulnerable, with wild populations threatened by habitat loss and poaching. Clinical pathology is used to detect and monitor disease and injury, however existing reference interval (RI) studies for this species have been performed with outdated analytical methods, small sample sizes or using only managed animals. The aim of this study was to generate hematology and clinical chemistry RIs, using samples from the free-ranging elephant population in the Kruger National Park, South Africa. Hematology RIs were derived from EDTA whole blood samples automatically analyzed (n = 23); manual PCV measured from 48 samples; and differential cell count results (n = 51) were included. Clinical chemistry RIs were generated from the results of automated analyzers on stored serum samples (n = 50). Reference intervals were generated according to American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology guidelines with a strict exclusion of outliers. Hematology RIs were: PCV 34–49%, RBC 2.80–3.96 × 10¹²/L, HGB 116–163 g/L, MCV 112–134 fL, MCH 35.5–45.2 pg, MCHC 314–364 g/L, PLT 182–386 × 10⁹/L, WBC 7.5–15.2 × 10⁹/L, segmented heterophils 1.5–4.0 × 10⁹/L, band heterophils 0.0–0.2 × 10⁹/L, total monocytes 3.6–7.6 × 10⁹/L (means for “regular” were 35.2%, bilobed 8.6%, round 3.9% of total leukocytes), lymphocytes 1.1–5.5 × 10⁹/L, eosinophils 0.0–0.9 × 10⁹/L, basophils 0.0–0.1 × 10⁹/L. Clinical chemistry RIs were: albumin 41–55 g/L, ALP 30–122 U/L, AST 9–34 U/L, calcium 2.56–3.02 mmol/L, CK 85–322 U/L, GGT 7–16 U/L, globulin 30–59 g/L, magnesium 1.15–1.70 mmol/L, phosphorus 1.28–2.31 mmol/L, total protein 77–109 g/L, urea 1.2–4.6 mmol/L. Reference intervals were narrower than those reported in other studies. These RI will be helpful in the future management of injured or diseased elephants in national parks and zoological settings.

Releasing Three Orphaned White Rhinoceroses (Ceratotherium simum) to the Game Reserve in South Africa. Rehabilitation, Translocation and Post-Release Observations

White rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) is one of the most famous victims of poachers in Africa. One of the methods for dealing with decreasing rhino numbers is rehabilitating wounded and/or orphaned animals to successfully release them back into the wild. The status of rescued animal differs among individuals, but general procedures must be established and constantly improved. This study presents the history of successful release of three orphaned white rhino females; rehabilitated for 15 months in Wildlife Rehabilitation Centre in a private game reserve in South Africa. Female A was three years old, female B was one year old and the youngest female was three months old on arrival. The animals were rehabilitated together despite the differences in their age and size, with particular attention paid to keeping them as wild as possible. After being weaned and becoming old enough to go back to the wild, they were released at a distance from the rehabilitation centre, which required immobilization and translocation. Since the rhinos were released, they have been successfully living in the wild. All procedures used in this study proved to be sufficient for preparing the animals for life in the wild and can be recommended for other centres.