On-Farm Welfare Assessment of Horses: The Risks of Putting the Cart before the Horse

Welfare assessment of Thoroughbred horses naturally infected with gastrointestinal parasites in Southern Brazil: Quantifying the host-parasite relationship

Horse welfare assessment (HWA) does not account for individual or herd parasite infection. This study investigated the connection between HWA and individual parasite fecal egg count (FEC) in 90 Thoroughbred horses. All horses were naturally infected with gastrointestinal parasites and were evaluated for individual welfare indicators and FEC monthly, for 12 months. Horses were divided into three groups of 30 mares, 30 foals aged between 13 and 16 months (G2013), and 30 foals aged between two months and one year (G2014). A horse welfare protocol was developed and 1024 assessments were carried out by five trained assessors. FEC ranged from 0 to 5,760 with 98.8 % showing small strongyle eggs. Body condition scores were ideal in 94.4 % of the evaluations (n = 967), and 95.8 % of all horses had good clinical and behavioral indicators. Despite the variation in FEC, the data found no significant association between FEC and the behavioral indicators. The study suggests that FEC alone should not be used as a determinant of welfare when animals are managed with good nutritional and health management practices.

Selected Acoustic Frequencies Have a Positive Impact on Behavioural and Physiological Welfare Indicators in Thoroughbred Racehorses

(1) Background: Since antiquity, it is considered that sounds influence human emotional states and health. Acoustic enrichment has also been proposed for domestic animals. However, in both humans and animals, effects vary according to the type of sound. Human studies suggest that frequencies, more than melodies, play a key role. Low and high frequencies, music tuning frequency and even EEG slow waves used for 'neurofeedback' produce effects. (2) Methods: We tested the possible impact of such pure frequencies on racehorses' behavior and physiology. A commercial non-audible acoustic stimulus, composed of an array of the above-mentioned frequencies, was broadcasted twice daily and for three weeks to 12 thoroughbred horses in their home stall. (3) Results: The results show a decrease in stereotypic behaviors and other indicators such as yawning or vacuum chewing, an increase in the time spent in recumbent resting and foraging, and better hematological measures during and after the playback phase for 4 of the 10 physiological parameters measured. (4) Conclusions: These results open new lines of research on possible ways of alleviating the stress related to housing and training conditions in racehorses and of improving physical recovery.

How to Understand Them? A Review of Emotional Indicators in Horses

Stabled horses often experience negative emotions due to the inappropriate living conditions imposed by humans. However, identifying what emotions horses experience and what can trigger positive and negative emotions in stabled horses can be challenging. In this article we present a brief history of the study of emotions and models that explain emotions from a scientific point of view and the physiological bases and functions of emotions. We then review and discuss physiological and behavioral indicators and cognitive bias tests developed to assess emotions in horses. Hormone concentrations, body temperature, the position of the ears, facial expressions and behaviors, such as approach and avoidance behaviors, can provide valuable information about emotional states in horses. The cognitive bias paradigm is a recent and robust tool to assess emotions in horses. Knowing how to evaluate the intensity and frequency of an individual's emotions can guide horse owners and caretakers to identify practices and activities that should be stimulated, avoided or even banned from the individual's life, in favor of a life worth living. The development and validation of novel indicators of emotions considering positive and negative contexts can help in these actions.

Mental Experiences in Wild Animals: Scientifically Validating Measurable Welfare Indicators in Free-Roaming Horses

The mental experiences of animals are what characterises their welfare status. The Five Domains Model for assessing welfare aligns with the understanding that physical and mental states are linked. Following measurement of indicators within each of the four physical/functional Domains (1. Nutrition; 2. Physical environment; 3. Health; and 4. Behavioural interactions), the anticipated negative or positive affective consequences (mental experiences) are cautiously inferred and assigned to Domain 5. Those inferences derive credibility from validated knowledge of the underlying systems of physiology, neurophysiology, neuroethology and affective neuroscience. Any indicators used for assessing welfare need to be scientifically validated. This requires, firstly, evidence of the links between a measurable/observable indicator and the physical/functional impact (in Domains 1 to 4), and secondly, a demonstrable relationship between the physical/functional impact and the mental experience it is inferred the indicators reflect (in Domain five). This review refers to indicators of physical/functional states in Domains 1 to 4, which have been shown to be measurable in free-roaming wild horses, and then evaluates the scientific evidence linking them to inferred mental experiences in Domain 5. This is the first time that the scientific evidence validating a comprehensive range of welfare indicators has been synthesised in this way. Inserting these indicators into the Five Domains Model enables transparently justifiable assessment and grading of welfare status in free-roaming horses.

Welfare of extensively managed Swedish Gotland ponies

It has been suggested that grazing horses could be used as a credible tool for landscape conservation which would, at the same time, improve horse welfare as opposed to conventional housing. A study was conducted between May 2014 and April 2015 on 12 one year old Gotland ponies managed extensively without supplementary feed. Monthly animal welfare assessments (n = 13) revealed welfare issues in most of the horses, i.e. low body condition score (BCS < 3/5), recurring poor skin condition in 11/12 horses and ocular discharge in 7/12 horses. At the end of the study, compared to the beginning, chafing and poor skin condition increased while coat condition improved. A correlation was found between a negative reaction (score > 0) in the human approach test and BCS < 3 and ocular discharge. Avoidance Distance test values were correlated with faecal parasite counts (> 350 eggs per gram [EPG]). These results indicate that the horses had acceptable welfare during late spring/summer (May-September) and that some horses required additional feed during winter. The animal welfare protocol proved to be an efficient tool for monitoring welfare. The results showed that factors important for extensive management are: daily monitoring; enclosures that provide sufficient feed; access to recovery enclosure; and habituation of horses to human approach.

Changes in Management, Welfare, Emotional State, and Human-Related Docility in Stallions

Despite an increase in awareness of their essential needs, many stallions continue to be kept in conditions limiting their social interactions and movement. To supplement the studies which highlight the effects of these practices on selected aspects of equine mental and physical wellbeing, we aimed to monitor a group of 32 adult intact stallions during their transition from tethered housing with limited outdoor access to free group housing through the lens of their overall welfare, perceived emotional status, and docility toward humans. Over three visits (before the management change, two weeks, and three months after, respectively), their welfare, qualitative behavior, and docility were assessed. Analysis of the data collected showed an improvement in the stallions’ overall welfare and no decrease in their docility after their group-release, with a constant correlation between these two aspects. The evaluation of their emotional states was less relevant, lacking consistency between the assessments for most of the descriptors used, warranting further research in similar conditions. Although our study covered a relatively short period of time, our results provide encouraging support for stallion owners in deciding on a similar management change for the welfare of their animals.

Quality of Life within Horse Welfare Assessment Tools: Informing Decisions for Chronically Ill and Geriatric Horses

Simple Summary

Equine Quality of Life is an important concern in decision making in veterinary medicine and is especially relevant for chronically ill or aged horses when euthanasia is considered. To our knowledge, there is no assessment tool for chronically ill or aged horses that assesses equine Quality of Life defined as the horse’s evaluation of their life. However, tools exist to assess equine welfare in different contexts. Therefore, this study aimed to analyse how equine welfare, Quality of Life, well-being and happiness assessment tools define and attempt to measure these concepts. We discuss the tools’ suitability to assess equine Quality of Life in the context of end-of-life decisions for chronically ill or aged horses. Fourteen publications were found via a systematic literature search, describing ten equine welfare assessment tools and one approach to assessing equine Quality of Life in veterinary practice. Some of these welfare assessment tools have the potential to inform the development of a Quality-of-Life assessment tool supporting well-considered decision making towards the end of horses’ lives if they are adjusted to focus on the horses’ experiences, to provide an overall grade of Quality of Life and are tailored to chronically ill or geriatric horses.

Abstract

Equine Quality of Life (QoL) is an important concern in decision making in veterinary medicine and is especially relevant for chronically ill or geriatric horses towards the end of their lives. To our knowledge, there is no currently available QoL assessment tool for chronically ill or geriatric horses that assesses equine QoL defined as the horse’s evaluation of their life. However, tools exist to assess equine welfare in different contexts. Hence, the aims of this study were to analyse how equine welfare, QoL, well-being and happiness assessment tools label, define and operationalise the concepts and to discuss the tools’ suitability to assess equine QoL in the context of end-of-life decisions for chronically ill or geriatric horses. Fourteen articles were found through a systematic literature search, describing ten equine welfare assessment tools and one approach to integrating equine QoL in veterinary practice that suggests QoL assessment parameters. We discuss that some welfare assessment tools have the potential to support the development of a QoL assessment tool informing decisions towards the end of horses’ lives if they are adjusted to focus on the horses’ experiences, to provide an integration into an overall QoL grade and are tailored to chronically ill or geriatric horses.

Interest in Humans: Comparisons between Riding School Lesson Equids and Assisted-Intervention Equids

Simple Summary

Very little is known about the impact of equine-assisted interventions on equids’ perception of humans. Different factors can influence human–horse relationships: animal characteristics, daily interactions with the caretakers, and working and living conditions. In this study, 172 equids working in equine-assisted interventions, ‘classical’ riding school lessons, or both were submitted to a standardised human–horse relationship test in order to test if EAI had an impact on the equid reactions to humans. The possible influence of intrinsic (age, sex, type) or other extrinsic factors (housing and feeding conditions) was also considered. The results showed that the number (more than the type) of experimenter-directed behaviours varied significantly between individuals and that the activity was the most important factor of influence: Equids working in riding school lessons performed more interactive behaviours than those working in equine-assisted interventions or having mixed activity. Other factors such as daily hay quantity, the horses’ age, and sex also influenced secondarily the horse’s motivation to interact, although no interaction was found between factors. These results suggest that equine-assisted interventions do influence horses’ perception of humans outside work. Further studies are needed in order to understand the processes involved.

Abstract

Little is known about the impact of equine-assisted interventions (EAI) on equids’ perception of humans. In this study 172 equids, living in 12 riding centres, were submitted to a standardised human–horse relationship test: the motionless person test. Age, sex, type (horse/pony), housing, and feeding conditions of subjects were recorded. Overall, 17 equids worked in EAI, 95 in riding school lessons (RS), and 60 in both (EAI-RS). There were high inter-individual variations in the number of interactive behaviours directed towards the experimenter: negative binomial general linear models showed that activity was the most important factor: RS equids performed more interactive behaviours than EAI (p = 0.039) and EAI-RS (p < 0.001) equids. Daily quantity of hay appeared as the second most important factor (equids with more than 3 kg interacted more than equids with less than 3 kg, p = 0.013). Individual characteristics were also important as horses interacted more than ponies (p = 0.009), geldings more than mares (p = 0.032), and 3–15-year-old equids more than equids over 15 years (p = 0.032). However, there was no interaction between factors. The lower number of interactive behaviours of EAI equids leads to different hypotheses—namely, selection on temperament, specific training, or compromised welfare (apathy). In any case, our results raised new lines of questions on EAI.

Detecting Welfare in a Non-Verbal Species: Social/Cultural Biases and Difficulties in Horse Welfare Assessment

Simple Summary

There is a paradox about the welfare of horses in the domestic situation: on the one hand, horses are beloved partners for most owners, but on the other hand, scientific studies are converging to show that there is a high prevalence of welfare problems. There seems to be a mismatch between theoretical knowledge and field applications. In this review, we aim at disentangling the possible factors explaining such a paradox. Among them, we consider the impact of anthropomorphic and cultural biases, popular beliefs, but also overexposure to horses with compromised welfare state, which can change owners’ representation of what is a “normal” horse, on the undervaluation of horse welfare state. We suggest that, rather than simply having knowledge on what should be done, identifying the horse welfare state using validated animal-based indicators is essential to identify and promote best practices.

Abstract

Horses were domesticated for more than 5000 years and have been one of the most emblematic species living alongside humans. This long-shared history would suggest that horses are well known and well understood, but scientific data raise many concerns about the welfare state of most domestic horses suggesting that many aspects have been largely misunderstood. In the present review, we will examine some of the possible human factors that may explain the huge prevalence of welfare problems, despite horses being of special importance to humans. First of all, as horses are non-verbal, current management practices rely upon what one thinks is good for them, which opens the way to subjective interpretations and projections, based on one’s own subjective experience but probably still more on cultural/social norms and influences, traditions and beliefs. The lack of recognition, identification, or even the misinterpretation of signals are other potential reasons for welfare issues. Lastly, the over-exposure to animals with expressions of compromised welfare may lead to lower sensitivity of owners/professionals. That is why we lastly suggest that instead of simply providing information on what to do, we should promote validated visible indicators that leave less room for personal interpretation.

Equine Activity Time Budgets: The Effect of Housing and Management Conditions on Geriatric Horses and Horses with Chronic Orthopaedic Disease

Housing and management conditions strongly influence the health, welfare and behaviour of horses. Consequently, objective and quantifiable comparisons between domestic environments and their influence on different equine demographics are needed to establish evidence-based criteria to assess and optimize horse welfare. Therefore, the present study aimed to measure and compare the time budgets (=percentage of time spent on specific activities) of horses with chronic orthopaedic disease and geriatric (≥20 years) horses living in different husbandry systems using an automated tracking device. Horses spent 42% (range 38.3-44.8%) of their day eating, 39% (range 36.87-44.9%) resting, and 19% (range 17-20.4%) in movement, demonstrating that geriatric horses and horses suffering from chronic orthopaedic disease can exhibit behaviour time budgets equivalent to healthy controls. Time budget analysis revealed significant differences between farms, turn-out conditions and time of day, and could identify potential areas for improvement. Horses living in open-air group housing on a paddock had a more uniform temporal distribution of feeding and movement activities with less pronounced peaks compared to horses living in more restricted husbandry systems.

An Ethical Framework for the Use of Horses in Competitive Sport: Theory and Function

Growing ethical concern about equestrian sport is reflected in publications by regulatory authorities, animal charities, and the lay press; and in government debate and social media. However, attempts by regulators and stakeholders to address ethical issues in equine sport have been discipline specific and ad hoc. Ethical frameworks can help stakeholders to make contextual decisions about what should or should not be done in a particular situation. However, when existing animal welfare frameworks and existing sports ethics frameworks are reviewed in this paper, it becomes clear that none provide us with a suitable or sufficient tool for considering ethical issues which can arise in situations where the athlete is a non-human, non-consenting participant. This paper presents the theoretical development of a novel ethical framework, with the aim of providing stakeholders with a tool which they might apply to the consideration of the ethical questions which inevitably arise in relation to (equestrian) sport. The derivation and limitations of the ethical framework are explained. The use of the framework will serve both to underwrite the continuation of the social license to use horses in sport and also to enable those within equestrian sport to critically assess existing and proposed practices and to make welfare-improving adjustments to practice if/where necessary. The theoretical framework as presented here is currently being practically tested and refined in consultation with industry stakeholders, and that research will be submitted for publication in due course.

Recommendations for Ensuring Good Welfare of Horses Used for Industrial Blood, Serum, or Urine Production

Simple Summary

Because of their large size, blood, serum, or other substances are often collected from horses for production of biologics and therapeutics used in humans and other animals. There are few international guidelines that provide recommendations for caring for horses kept for these purposes. In this paper, general guidelines are provided to ensure well-being of horses kept for production of biologics.

Abstract

Various pharmaceutical products have been derived from horse blood and urine for over a century. Production of biologics and therapeutics from these samples is a niche industry and often occurs in regions with little regulation or veterinary oversight. To ensure good welfare of horses maintained for these purposes, guidance has been developed to support the industry.

Activity Time Budgets-A Potential Tool to Monitor Equine Welfare?

Simple Summary

Horses’ behavior is a good indicator of their welfare status. However, its complexity requires objective, quantifiable, and unambiguous evidence-based assessment criteria. As healthy, stress-free horses exhibit a highly repetitive daily routine, horses’ time budget (amount of time in a 24 h period spent on specific activities) can assist in equine welfare assessment. A systematic review of the literature yielded 12 papers that assessed equine time budgets for eating, resting and movement for a minimum of 24 continuous hours. A total of 144 horses (1–27 years old), 59 semi-feral and 85 domesticated horses, are included in this review. The reported 24 h time budgets for eating ranged from 10% to 66.6%, for resting from 8.1% to 66%, for lying from 2.7% to 27.3%, and for movement from 0.015% to 19.1%. The large variance in time budgets between studies can largely be attributed to differences in age and environmental conditions. Management interventions (free access to food, increased space, decreased population density) in domesticated horses yielded time budgets similar to semi-feral horses. The data support the importance of environmental conditions for horses’ well-being and the ability of time budgets to assist in monitoring horses’ welfare.

Abstract

Horses’ behavior can provide valuable insight into their subjective state and is thus a good indicator of welfare. However, its complexity requires objective, quantifiable, and unambiguous evidence-based assessment criteria. As healthy, stress-free horses exhibit a highly repetitive daily routine, temporal quantification of their behavioral activities (time budget analysis) can assist in equine welfare assessment. Therefore, the present systematic review aimed to provide an up-to-date analysis of equine time budget studies. A review of the literature yielded 12 papers that fulfilled the inclusion criteria: assessment of equine time budgets for eating, resting and movement for a minimum of 24 continuous hours. A total of 144 horses (1–27 years old), 59 semi-feral and 85 domesticated horses, are included in this review. The 24 h time budgets for foraging or eating (10–6.6%), resting (8.1–66%), lying (2.7–27.3%), and locomotion (0.015–19.1%) showed large variance between studies, which can largely be attributed to differences in age and environmental conditions. Management interventions in domesticated horses (ad libitum access to food, increased space, decreased population density) resulted in time budgets similar to their (semi-)feral conspecifics, emphasizing the importance of environmental conditions and the ability of time budgets to assist in monitoring horses’ welfare.

Welfare of horses from Mexico and the United States of America transported for slaughter in Mexico: Fitness profiles for transport and pre-slaughter logistics

Every year thousands of horses from Mexico and the United States of America (USA) are transported to slaughter in Mexico, but little is known about their welfare or pre-slaughter logistics. In this study, we recorded the origin, sex, age and condition of horses (121 journeys, 2648 animals) upon arrival to an abattoir in northern Mexico, including transport details. Horse welfare was measured indirectly via individual scores for body condition, coat quality, lameness, ocular and nasal discharge, as well as reactivity to a chute restraint test, all performed shortly after unloading. The average journey duration was 9.69 (±7.6) hours for horses from Mexico and 16.77 (±4.51) hours for horses from the USA (77 % of all journeys). The prevalence of ocular discharge, nasal discharge, skin wounds, lameness and diarrhoea, were 23 %, 12 %, 11 %, 9 %, 1 % (respectively) of all the horses observed, with no significant differences between Mexican and American horses (P ≥ 0.05). During the chute test the American horses were calmer than the Mexican ones (P < 0.001), who were more restless and aggressive (P = 0.001). Likewise, vocalizations in their three variants during the restraint, neigh/whinny (P = 0.018), nicker (P < 0.001), and snort (P = 0.018), were more common in horses from Mexico. In order to help characterize fitness for transport, a two-step cluster analysis was applied using the welfare indicators, suggesting the existence of four clusters (C) evaluated on arrival at the abattoir (from good to very poor fitness): good (profile C4, n = 769, 29.1 %), average (profile C1, n = 799 horses, 30.2 %), poor (profile C3, n = 586, 22.1 %) and very poor (profile C2, n = 494, 18.6 %). In fact, the C4 best welfare group had 0% lame, 0% nasal discharge, 16.4 % ocular discharge, 7.9 % skin wounds. Instead, the C2 poorest welfare group had 45.8 % lame, 61.1 % nasal discharge, 42.8 % ocular discharge, and 19.9 % skin wounds. Results show potential for using nasal discharge, lameness and ocular discharge as key indicators of horse fitness and welfare on abattoir. The study provides detailed scientific data to help establish strategies regarding optimal days of recovery post-transport and fattening for homogenization of weights between animals of different origins, logistic planning, and optimization of logistic resources to minimize the biological cost of long-distance transport.