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Vake T, Snoj T, Čemažar M, Lampreht Tratar U, Stupan U, Seliškar A, Plut J, Kosjek T, Plešnik H, Štukelj M. Pharmacokinetics of single dose levobupivacaine after peri-incisional subcutaneous infiltration in anaesthetized domestic pigs. Lab Anim 2024:236772241259618. [PMID: 39157982 DOI: 10.1177/00236772241259618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/20/2024]
Abstract
Increasing use of pigs as models in translational research, and growing focus on animal welfare are leading to better use of effective analgesics and anaesthetics when painful procedures are performed. However, there is a gap in basic knowledge such as pharmacokinetics of different anaesthetics in these species. The main objective of our study was to determine the pharmacokinetics of levobupivacaine in domestic pigs. Twelve female grower pigs weighing 31.17 ± 4.6 kg were subjected to general anaesthesia and experimental surgery, at the end of which they received 1 mg/kg levobupivacaine via peri-incisional subcutaneous infiltration. Plasma samples were collected before administration of levobupivacaine and at 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, 24 and 48 h thereafter. Concentrations of levobupivacaine were determined by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Following single dose of levobupivacaine, all animals had measurable plasma concentrations 0.5 h after drug administration, with most peak concentrations observed at the 1-h time point. In all 12 animals, levobupivacaine was below the limit of quantification 48 h after drug administration. The mean maximum plasma concentration, area under the curve and half-life were determined to be 809.98 μg/l, 6552.46 μg/l h and 6.25 h, respectively. Plasma clearance, volume of distribution and weight-normalized volume of distribution were 4.41 l/h, 35.57 l and 1.23 l/kg, respectively. Peak plasma concentrations in our study were well below concentrations that were found to produce toxicity in pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tilen Vake
- Institute of Preclinical Sciences, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Tomaž Snoj
- Institute of Preclinical Sciences, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Maja Čemažar
- Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Department of Experimental Oncology, Slovenia
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Primorska, Izola, Slovenia
| | | | - Urban Stupan
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
- University Medical Centre Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Alenka Seliškar
- Small Animal Clinic, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Jan Plut
- Clinic for Ruminants and Pigs, Veterinary Facuinlty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Tina Kosjek
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Jožef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Jožef Stefan International Postgraduate School, Jožef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Helena Plešnik
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Jožef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Jožef Stefan International Postgraduate School, Jožef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Marina Štukelj
- Clinic for Ruminants and Pigs, Veterinary Facuinlty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Lopez-Soriano M, Merenda VR, Anderson S, Trindade PHE, Leidig MS, Messenger K, Ferreira JB, Pairis-Garcia MD. Efficacy of inguinal buffered lidocaine and intranasal flunixin meglumine on mitigating physiological and behavioral responses to pain in castrated piglets. FRONTIERS IN PAIN RESEARCH 2023; 4:1156873. [PMID: 37346473 PMCID: PMC10279844 DOI: 10.3389/fpain.2023.1156873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Managing castration pain on US sow farms is hindered by the lack of Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved products for mitigating pain. Previous work assessing flunixin meglumine (FM) efficacy in mitigating castration pain has shown the drug to be effective in pigs, meanwhile, results from previous work evaluating lidocaine efficacy are contradictory. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to determine the efficacy of inguinal buffered lidocaine (BL) and FM in mitigating castration pain in piglets. This study was divided into Part I (physiological response) and Part II (behavioral response). For part I piglets were randomly assigned to the following treatments: T1: (C) Castration plus physiological saline; T2: (S) Sham plus physiological saline; T3: (CL) Castration plus BL; T4: (SL) Sham plus BL; T5: (CF) Castration plus FM; T6: (SF) Sham plus FM; T7: (CLF) Castration plus BL and FM; T8: (SLF) Sham plus BL and FM. Blood was collected 24 h prior to castration, 1 h, and 24 h post castration for cortisol quantification. For Part II another cohort of piglets was enrolled and randomly assign to the following treatments: T1: (C) Castration plus physiological saline and T7: (CLF) Castration plus BL and FM. Behavior scoring was obtained in real-time by observing each piglet for 4-min continuously using Unesp-Botucatu pig acute pain scale (UPAPS) at the following timepoints: 1 h before castration (-1 h), immediately post-castration (0 h), and 3 h post-castration (+3 h). Average cortisol concentrations did not differ at -24 h (P > 0.05) or at 24 h post-castration (P > 0.05) between treatments. At 1 h post-castration, castrated piglets (C and CL) demonstrated greater cortisol concentrations (P < 0.05). Castrated piglets in the CF and CLF group had lower cortisol concentrations compared to C and CL-treated pigs (P < 0.05). For behavioral response, there were no differences between treatments on total UPAPS scores (C and CLF, P > 0.05). Intranasal FM was able to effectively reduce the physiological piglet's response immediately post-castration. Inguinal buffered lidocaine had no effect on the either physiological or behavioral response to pain. Long-term research should focus on refining injection techniques for inguinal BL and consider administration frequency and dosing of intranasal FM to control pain for a longer period post-castration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdiel Lopez-Soriano
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
| | - Victoria Rocha Merenda
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
| | - Stephanie Anderson
- Department of Molecular Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
| | | | | | - Kristen Messenger
- Department of Molecular Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
| | - Juliana Bonin Ferreira
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
| | - Monique Danielle Pairis-Garcia
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
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Pierdon MK, Berdahl SE. Effect of Topical Spray Containing Lidocaine on Piglet Behaviour Post castration. J APPL ANIM WELF SCI 2023; 26:195-204. [PMID: 34224284 DOI: 10.1080/10888705.2021.1946397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies examining the impact of topical lidocaine spray on postcastration pain behavior in piglets used scan sampling for the collection of behavior data. This methodology led to inconclusive results on the efficacy of topical lidocaine spray for pain relief. This study uses continuous coding to examine the effect of topical lidocaine on piglet behavior post castration. Castrated piglets received either no pain relief or topical lidocaine spray and are compared to gilts that were handled only. Postcastration piglet behavior was continuously coded for postural behaviors, social isolation, as well as nosing and playing. Behaviors in the castrated piglets differed from those that were handled only, but the piglets that received the spray did not exhibit significantly different behaviors from castrated pigs that received no spray. Play, exploratory behavior, and continuous behavioral observations proved to be sensitive modalities for detecting alterations in behavior postcastration and revealed that topical lidocaine spray does not provide effective pain mitigation for piglets undergoing castration and would thus not be recommended as a method for providing postcastration pain relief in piglets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghann K Pierdon
- Clinical Studies, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Kennett Square, PA, USA
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Miller R, Grott A, Patzkéwitsch D, Döring D, Abendschön N, Deffner P, Reiser J, Ritzmann M, Saller AM, Schmidt P, Senf S, Werner J, Baumgartner C, Zöls S, Erhard M, Bergmann S. Behavior of Piglets in an Observation Arena before and after Surgical Castration with Local Anesthesia. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:529. [PMID: 36766418 PMCID: PMC9913414 DOI: 10.3390/ani13030529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Revised: 01/25/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Surgical castration of piglets is generally recognized as a painful procedure, but there is currently no gold standard for the assessment of pain behavior in piglets. However, pain assessment is essential for evaluating the effectiveness of local anesthetics. In this study, we investigated the efficacy of four local anesthetics in terms of pain relief during and after surgical castration in three sequential study parts. To do so, we filmed 178 piglets before the applied procedures, after injection of the local anesthetic, and up to 24 h after castration (five observation times in total) in an observation arena and compared their behavior before and after castration and between treatments and control groups. The results showed significant differences in the behavior of the piglets before and after castration and between the sham-castrated control group and the control group castrated without anesthesia. The different local anesthesia treatment groups showed diverging differences to the control groups. The most frequently shown pain-associated behaviors of the piglets were changes in tail position and hunched back posture. We observed a reduction but no complete elimination of the expressed pain-associated behaviors after local anesthesia. Several behavioral changes-such as changes in tail position, hunched back posture or tail wagging-persisted until the day after castration. Owing to the limited duration of the effects of the local anesthetics, local anesthesia did not influence long-term pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Regina Miller
- Department of Veterinary Science, Chair of Animal Welfare, Ethology, Animal Hygiene and Animal Husbandry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, LMU Munich, 80539 Munich, Germany
| | - Andrea Grott
- Department of Veterinary Science, Chair of Animal Welfare, Ethology, Animal Hygiene and Animal Husbandry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, LMU Munich, 80539 Munich, Germany
| | - Dorian Patzkéwitsch
- Department of Veterinary Science, Chair of Animal Welfare, Ethology, Animal Hygiene and Animal Husbandry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, LMU Munich, 80539 Munich, Germany
| | - Dorothea Döring
- Department of Veterinary Science, Chair of Animal Welfare, Ethology, Animal Hygiene and Animal Husbandry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, LMU Munich, 80539 Munich, Germany
| | - Nora Abendschön
- Clinic for Swine, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, 85764 Oberschleißheim, Germany
| | - Pauline Deffner
- Clinic for Swine, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, 85764 Oberschleißheim, Germany
| | - Judith Reiser
- Center for Preclinical Research, Technical University of Munich, 81675 Munich, Germany
| | - Mathias Ritzmann
- Clinic for Swine, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, 85764 Oberschleißheim, Germany
| | - Anna M. Saller
- Center for Preclinical Research, Technical University of Munich, 81675 Munich, Germany
| | - Paul Schmidt
- Statistical Consulting for Science and Research, Große Seestr. 8, 13086 Berlin, Germany
| | - Steffanie Senf
- Clinic for Swine, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, 85764 Oberschleißheim, Germany
| | - Julia Werner
- Center for Preclinical Research, Technical University of Munich, 81675 Munich, Germany
| | - Christine Baumgartner
- Center for Preclinical Research, Technical University of Munich, 81675 Munich, Germany
| | - Susanne Zöls
- Clinic for Swine, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, 85764 Oberschleißheim, Germany
| | - Michael Erhard
- Department of Veterinary Science, Chair of Animal Welfare, Ethology, Animal Hygiene and Animal Husbandry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, LMU Munich, 80539 Munich, Germany
| | - Shana Bergmann
- Department of Veterinary Science, Chair of Animal Welfare, Ethology, Animal Hygiene and Animal Husbandry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, LMU Munich, 80539 Munich, Germany
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Romeo SMT, Morrone S, Akl T, Scanu A, Columbano N. Sutureless Technique for Surgical Castration in Adult Boars: A Feasibility Study. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13030407. [PMID: 36766297 PMCID: PMC9913264 DOI: 10.3390/ani13030407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Revised: 01/22/2023] [Accepted: 01/23/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The heterogeneity of Italian manufacturing processes results in the production of a large variety of pork products. In Sardinia, boars are raised and butchered to produce charcuterie. These animals are castrated before slaughter as androstenone would otherwise taint the meat, rendering it unfit for human consumption. However, to date, the literature concerning surgical orchiectomy in adult boars is limited. The goal of this study is to assess whether a sutureless swine orchiectomy procedure is feasible. Additionally, this study aims to determine the appropriate traction force needed to tie knots in the deferens duct of pigs of different weights and ages. Two groups were created: the first (n = 91) underwent orchiectomy by suture ligation; the second (n = 20) was castrated using the sutureless technique. Deferens ducts of animals in the first group (n = 182) were collected following castration, and their tensile strength was measured. Pearson's linear correlation was used to determine the relationship between the maximum traction force and weight and age groups. A correlation of 0.99 and 0.96 was shown between traction force and age and traction force and weight, respectively. In accordance with these results, sutureless castration was performed on 20 animals, calibrating the pulling force needed according to the age and weight of the boars. No complications were observed during the feasibility study, thus validating sutureless orchiectomy in adult boars.
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Söbbeler FJ, Wendt S, Briese A, Tünsmeier J, Waldmann KH, Kästner SBR, von Altrock A. Comparative Study of Pain-Related Responses of Male Piglets up to Seven Days of Age to the Application of Different Local Anaesthetics and Subsequent Castration. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12202833. [PMID: 36290223 PMCID: PMC9597853 DOI: 10.3390/ani12202833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2022] [Revised: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 10/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Since 2021, surgical piglet castration must be performed with complete pain elimination according to the Animal Protection Law in Germany. General anaesthesia by isoflurane inhalation, which can be performed by the farmer, or by injection of ketamine and azaperone, which must be performed by a veterinarian, are the options available. At present, local anaesthesia is still under debate because of the lack of proof of complete pain elimination and the pain on injection. We tested three local anaesthetics (procaine, lidocaine, and mepivacaine) at two different doses each. Because pain responses can be masked by reactions caused by handling, the piglets were given superficial isoflurane anaesthesia. The pain on injection to the testes was compared with intramuscular injection, and the effectiveness during castration was compared among the local anaesthetics. Nocifensive movements, respiratory rate, blood pressure, heart rate and its variability as well as electroencephalography (EEG) changes were studied in relation to the painful interventions. Most indicators of nociception point to testicular injection pain being beyond intramuscular injection pain when an effective amount of local anaesthetic was used. However, complete pain elimination could not be achieved during castration under local anaesthesia. Abstract To evaluate pain responses to intratesticular and subscrotal injection of three local anaesthetics and their efficacy during castration a randomized controlled study was conducted. In groups of 20 piglets, procaine (2%), lidocaine (2%), or mepivacaine (2%) were administered subscrotal and intratesticularly in two different dosages: 0.5 mL of the original substances or the maximum recommended dosage according to body weight diluted with isotonic saline to a volume of 0.3 mL per each injection site. Two placebo groups received the equivalent volume of isotonic saline. A control group was injected intramuscularly with 0.5 mL isotonic saline for injection pain comparison. Electroencephalographic changes, respiratory rate, heart rate and its variability, blood pressure, and nocifensive movements were assessed in superficial isoflurane anaesthesia. While EEG-changes and linear measures of heart rate variability did not appear conclusive, the low frequency/high frequency (LF/HF) ratio corresponded best with the other pain indicators recorded. The injection of 0.3 mL diluted local anaesthetic per injection site elicited significant fewer signs of pain compared to intramuscular injection of saline. However, pain reduction, but not complete pain elimination, during castration could only be achieved with 0.5 mL of the 2% local anaesthetics per injection site, whereby lidocaine and mepivacaine were the most effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franz Josef Söbbeler
- Clinic for Small Animals, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Foundation, 30559 Hannover, Germany
- Correspondence: (F.J.S.); (A.v.A.)
| | - Sören Wendt
- Clinic for Swine, Small Ruminants, Forensic Medicine and Ambulatory Service, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, 30173 Hannover, Germany
| | | | - Julia Tünsmeier
- Clinic for Small Animals, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Foundation, 30559 Hannover, Germany
| | - Karl-Heinz Waldmann
- Clinic for Swine, Small Ruminants, Forensic Medicine and Ambulatory Service, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, 30173 Hannover, Germany
| | - Sabine Beate Rita Kästner
- Clinic for Small Animals, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Foundation, 30559 Hannover, Germany
| | - Alexandra von Altrock
- Clinic for Swine, Small Ruminants, Forensic Medicine and Ambulatory Service, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, 30173 Hannover, Germany
- Correspondence: (F.J.S.); (A.v.A.)
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Coutant M, Malmkvist J, Kaiser M, Foldager L, Herskin MS. Piglets' acute responses to local anesthetic injection and surgical castration: Effects of the injection method and interval between injection and castration. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:1009858. [PMID: 36246321 PMCID: PMC9556771 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.1009858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Although applied in some countries, efficacy of local anesthetics based on procaine to mitigate acute responses to piglet castration remains questioned. This paper presents results from a factorial study examining the effects of two methods of injection of a procaine-based drug (intra-funicular, IF, vs. intra-testicular, IT), and four intervals between drug injection and castration (2.5, 5, 10, and 30 min) on acute responses of 3–4 day old piglets. The study involved 597 male piglets, and 13 treatments: surgical castration without anesthesia (CC), local anesthesia followed by castration involving all combinations of injection method and interval, and sham handling separated by the same four intervals (SH). Responses of piglets to drug injection, castration and sham handling were evaluated based on quantification of intra-procedural vocalizations and leg movements, as well as saliva cortisol concentration in samples taken before and after castration. No differences were found between IF and the simpler IT injection method. Intervals of 2.5 or 30 min led to stronger piglet responses than the other intervals. Overall, treatments involving anesthesia led to significantly stronger responses than sham handling, during both injection and castration. All treatments, even sham handling, led to a significant increase in saliva cortisol, with no differences between anesthesia treatments and controls. Based on these results, castration 5–10 min after intra-testicular injection of procaine seems to be preferable as compared to the other treatments tested. However, piglets still showed measurable signs of pain and stress during both injection and castration, while handling alone (including the use of a castration bench) triggered a noticeable stress response. In light of these findings, the overall benefit of the procedure in terms of piglet welfare remains arguable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathilde Coutant
- Department of Animal Science, Aarhus University, Tjele, Denmark
- *Correspondence: Mathilde Coutant
| | - Jens Malmkvist
- Department of Animal Science, Aarhus University, Tjele, Denmark
| | - Marianne Kaiser
- Department of Animal Science, Aarhus University, Tjele, Denmark
| | - Leslie Foldager
- Department of Animal Science, Aarhus University, Tjele, Denmark
- Bioinformatics Research Centre, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
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Coutant M, Malmkvist J, Kaiser M, Foldager L, Herskin MS. Piglets' acute responses to procaine-based local anesthetic injection and surgical castration: Effects of two volumes of anesthetic. FRONTIERS IN PAIN RESEARCH 2022; 3:943138. [PMID: 36017329 PMCID: PMC9395716 DOI: 10.3389/fpain.2022.943138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Surgical castration of piglets is painful, but practiced routinely in commercial pig production. Procaine-based local anesthetics are used to mitigate piglet pain during castration in some countries. Yet, effects of the volume of anesthetic injected remain under-studied. The volume of drug administered may modulate the pain mitigating effect via variation in intra-testicular pressure at injection, potentially leading to pain or discomfort, as well as variation in the dose of active ingredient administered. The present study investigated the effects of injection with two volumes of a procaine-based local anesthetic, 0.3 vs. 0.5 mL per testis, on acute responses of 3-4 day old piglets. A total of 290 piglets were divided into 5 treatment groups: castration without anesthesia, castration after intra-testicular injection of 0.5 or 0.3 mL of drug per testis, and sham handling with one or two stays in a castration bench. Acute responses to drug injection, castration and sham handling were evaluated based on quantification of intra-procedural vocalizations and foreleg movements, as well as saliva cortisol concentrations before and after castration. Regardless of the volume, injection of anesthetic as well as castration led to significantly stronger responses than sham handling. Responses to the two drug volumes did not differ significantly, and responses to castration following injection of 0.3 mL did not differ from piglets castrated without anesthesia. All treatments, including sham handling, led to a significant increase in saliva cortisol, and no difference was found between anesthesia treatments and sham handling. Overall, the results suggested that injection of 0.5 mL led to better pain mitigation at castration compared to injection of 0.3 mL, but even when the local anesthetic was used, the combined procedures of injection and castration led to intra-procedural signs of pain and stress.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jens Malmkvist
- Department of Animal Science, Aarhus University, Tjele, Denmark
| | - Marianne Kaiser
- Department of Animal Science, Aarhus University, Tjele, Denmark
| | - Leslie Foldager
- Department of Animal Science, Aarhus University, Tjele, Denmark
- Bioinformatics Research Centre, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
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Nielsen SS, Alvarez J, Bicout DJ, Calistri P, Canali E, Drewe JA, Garin‐Bastuji B, Gonzales Rojas JL, Schmidt G, Herskin M, Michel V, Miranda Chueca MÁ, Mosbach‐Schulz O, Padalino B, Roberts HC, Stahl K, Velarde A, Viltrop A, Winckler C, Edwards S, Ivanova S, Leeb C, Wechsler B, Fabris C, Lima E, Mosbach‐Schulz O, Van der Stede Y, Vitali M, Spoolder H. Welfare of pigs on farm. EFSA J 2022; 20:e07421. [PMID: 36034323 PMCID: PMC9405538 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2022.7421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
This scientific opinion focuses on the welfare of pigs on farm, and is based on literature and expert opinion. All pig categories were assessed: gilts and dry sows, farrowing and lactating sows, suckling piglets, weaners, rearing pigs and boars. The most relevant husbandry systems used in Europe are described. For each system, highly relevant welfare consequences were identified, as well as related animal-based measures (ABMs), and hazards leading to the welfare consequences. Moreover, measures to prevent or correct the hazards and/or mitigate the welfare consequences are recommended. Recommendations are also provided on quantitative or qualitative criteria to answer specific questions on the welfare of pigs related to tail biting and related to the European Citizen's Initiative 'End the Cage Age'. For example, the AHAW Panel recommends how to mitigate group stress when dry sows and gilts are grouped immediately after weaning or in early pregnancy. Results of a comparative qualitative assessment suggested that long-stemmed or long-cut straw, hay or haylage is the most suitable material for nest-building. A period of time will be needed for staff and animals to adapt to housing lactating sows and their piglets in farrowing pens (as opposed to crates) before achieving stable welfare outcomes. The panel recommends a minimum available space to the lactating sow to ensure piglet welfare (measured by live-born piglet mortality). Among the main risk factors for tail biting are space allowance, types of flooring, air quality, health status and diet composition, while weaning age was not associated directly with tail biting in later life. The relationship between the availability of space and growth rate, lying behaviour and tail biting in rearing pigs is quantified and presented. Finally, the panel suggests a set of ABMs to use at slaughter for monitoring on-farm welfare of cull sows and rearing pigs.
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Johnston CH, Whittaker AL, Franklin SH, Hutchinson MR. The Neuroimmune Interface and Chronic Pain Through the Lens of Production Animals. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:887042. [PMID: 35663552 PMCID: PMC9160236 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.887042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Communication between the central nervous system (CNS) and the immune system has gained much attention for its fundamental role in the development of chronic and pathological pain in humans and rodent models. Following peripheral nerve injury, neuroimmune signaling within the CNS plays an important role in the pathophysiological changes in pain sensitivity that lead to chronic pain. In production animals, routine husbandry procedures such as tail docking and castration, often involve some degree of inflammation and peripheral nerve injury and consequently may lead to chronic pain. Our understanding of chronic pain in animals is limited by the difficulty in measuring this pathological pain state. In light of this, we have reviewed the current understanding of chronic pain in production animals. We discuss our ability to measure pain and the implications this has on animal welfare and production outcomes. Further research into the neuroimmune interface in production animals will improve our fundamental understanding of chronic pain and better inform human clinical pain management and animal husbandry practices and interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte H. Johnston
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Alexandra L. Whittaker
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, SA, Australia
| | - Samantha H. Franklin
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, SA, Australia
- Equine Health and Performance Centre, University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, SA, Australia
| | - Mark R. Hutchinson
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Nanoscale BioPhotonics, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
- Davies Livestock Research Centre, University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, SA, Australia
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11
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Werner J, Saller AM, Reiser J, Senf S, Deffner P, Abendschön N, Fischer J, Grott A, Miller R, Zablotski Y, Steiger K, Bergmann S, Erhard MH, Ritzmann M, Zöls S, Baumgartner C. Evaluation of Two Injection Techniques in Combination with the Local Anesthetics Lidocaine and Mepivacaine for Piglets Undergoing Surgical Castration. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:1028. [PMID: 35454274 PMCID: PMC9029161 DOI: 10.3390/ani12081028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Revised: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The present study evaluated the effects of two injection techniques in combination with lidocaine or mepivacaine for piglets undergoing castration. To improve ease of use, a cannula with side holes (one-step fenestrated (F)) was invented to simultaneously deliver a local anesthetic into the testis and scrotum and was compared to a two-step injection technique. The distribution of a lidocaine/contrast agent mixture using the two methods was examined using computed tomography. Piglets were randomly divided into treatment groups: handling, castration without pain relief and castration after lidocaine or mepivacaine injection using the one-step F or two-step method. Acute physiological responses to noxious stimuli were evaluated by measuring the mean arterial blood pressure (MAP), heart rate (HR) and nocifensive movements. Fos protein expression in the spinal dorsal cord was semi-quantitatively analyzed. Both injection techniques achieved similar distribution patterns. The one-step F method was faster and easier. Injection was not associated with significant changes in MAP or HR, but Mepi1 and NaCl elicited significantly increased nocifensive movements. Both techniques significantly reduced MAP and nocifensive movements when the spermatic cords were cut, regardless of the local anesthetic type. Compared to NaCl, only the lidocaine treatments significantly reduced HR during skin incision. Lido2 significantly reduced Fos protein expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Werner
- Center of Preclinical Research, Technical University of Munich, 81675 Munich, Germany
| | - Anna M Saller
- Center of Preclinical Research, Technical University of Munich, 81675 Munich, Germany
| | - Judith Reiser
- Center of Preclinical Research, Technical University of Munich, 81675 Munich, Germany
| | - Steffanie Senf
- Clinic for Swine, Center for Clinical Veterinary Medicine, LMU Munich, 85764 Oberschleissheim, Germany
| | - Pauline Deffner
- Clinic for Swine, Center for Clinical Veterinary Medicine, LMU Munich, 85764 Oberschleissheim, Germany
| | - Nora Abendschön
- Clinic for Swine, Center for Clinical Veterinary Medicine, LMU Munich, 85764 Oberschleissheim, Germany
| | - Johannes Fischer
- Center of Preclinical Research, Technical University of Munich, 81675 Munich, Germany
| | - Andrea Grott
- Chair of Animal Welfare, Ethology, Animal Hygiene and Husbandry, LMU Munich, 80539 Munich, Germany
| | - Regina Miller
- Chair of Animal Welfare, Ethology, Animal Hygiene and Husbandry, LMU Munich, 80539 Munich, Germany
| | - Yury Zablotski
- Clinic for Swine, Center for Clinical Veterinary Medicine, LMU Munich, 85764 Oberschleissheim, Germany
| | - Katja Steiger
- Institute of Pathology, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, 81675 Munich, Germany
| | - Shana Bergmann
- Chair of Animal Welfare, Ethology, Animal Hygiene and Husbandry, LMU Munich, 80539 Munich, Germany
| | - Michael H Erhard
- Chair of Animal Welfare, Ethology, Animal Hygiene and Husbandry, LMU Munich, 80539 Munich, Germany
| | - Mathias Ritzmann
- Clinic for Swine, Center for Clinical Veterinary Medicine, LMU Munich, 85764 Oberschleissheim, Germany
| | - Susanne Zöls
- Clinic for Swine, Center for Clinical Veterinary Medicine, LMU Munich, 85764 Oberschleissheim, Germany
| | - Christine Baumgartner
- Center of Preclinical Research, Technical University of Munich, 81675 Munich, Germany
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12
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Sheil M, De Benedictis GM, Scollo A, Metcalfe S, Innocent G, Polkinghorne A, Gottardo F. Efficacy of Intra-Operative Topical Wound Anaesthesia to Mitigate Piglet Castration Pain-A Large, Multi-Centred Field Trial. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11102763. [PMID: 34679785 PMCID: PMC8532673 DOI: 10.3390/ani11102763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Revised: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Piglet castration causes pain and stress to the animal. Although desperately needed, there are complexities developing safe and effective methods of pain alleviation applicable for on-farm use. Topical anaesthesia, instilled to the wound during surgery, is a newly evolving on-farm method to mitigate castration pain. In the current study, we investigated the use of Tri-Solfen® (Animal Ethics Pty Ltd, Melbourne, Australia), a topical local anaesthetic and antiseptic formulation, instilled to the wound during the procedure, to alleviate subsequent castration-related pain experienced in piglets. We performed a large, blind, multi-centred trial comparing pain in piglets castrated with or without Tri-Solfen®. Piglets treated with wound instillation of Tri-Solfen®, 30 s prior to subsequent castration, showed significantly lower pain-induced motor and vocal responses during the procedure. Acute post-operative pain-related behaviours, evident in piglets in the first 30 min following castration, were also significantly reduced in treated piglets compared with untreated piglets. Using this method, Tri-Solfen® provides an effective on-farm method to mitigate acute castration-related pain in young piglets. Abstract Piglet castration results in acute pain and stress to the animal. There is a critical need for effective on-farm methods of pain mitigation. Local anaesthesia using Tri-Solfen® (Animal Ethics Pty Ltd., Melbourne, Australia), a topical local anaesthetic and antiseptic formulation instilled to the wound during surgery, is a newly evolving on-farm method to mitigate castration pain. To investigate the efficacy of Tri-Solfen®, instilled to the wound during the procedure, to alleviate subsequent castration-related pain in neonatal piglets, we performed a large, negatively controlled, randomised field trial in two commercial pig farms in Europe. Piglets (173) were enrolled and randomised to undergo castration with or without Tri-Solfen®, instilled to the wound immediately following skin incision. A 30 s wait period was then observed prior to completing castration. Efficacy was investigated by measuring pain-induced motor and vocal responses during the subsequent procedure and post-operative pain-related behaviour in treated versus untreated piglets. There was a significant reduction in nociceptive motor and vocal response during castration and in the post-operative pain-related behaviour response in Tri-Solfen®-treated compared to untreated piglets, in the first 30 min following castration. Although not addressing pain of skin incision, Tri-Solfen® is effective to mitigate subsequent acute castration-related pain in piglets under commercial production conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meredith Sheil
- Animal Ethics Pty. Ltd., Yarra Glen, VIC 3775, Australia
- Correspondence:
| | - Giulia Maria De Benedictis
- Department of Animal Medicine, Production and Health, Padova University, Viale dell’Università 16, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; (G.M.D.B.); (F.G.)
| | - Annalisa Scollo
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Torino, Largo Braccini 2, 10095 Grugliasco, Italy;
| | - Suzanne Metcalfe
- Knoell Animal Health Ltd., Bank Barn, How Mill, Brampton CA8 9JY, UK;
| | - Giles Innocent
- Biomathematics and Statistics Scotland, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, Scotland, UK;
| | - Adam Polkinghorne
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, NSW Health Pathology, Nepean Hospital, Penrith, NSW 2750, Australia; or
- Major Mitchell Consulting, Buderim, QLD 4556, Australia
| | - Flaviana Gottardo
- Department of Animal Medicine, Production and Health, Padova University, Viale dell’Università 16, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; (G.M.D.B.); (F.G.)
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13
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Li Y, Zhao E, Li L, Bai L, Zhang W. Facile design of lidocaine-loaded polymeric hydrogel to persuade effects of local anesthesia drug delivery system: complete in vitro and in vivo toxicity analyses. Drug Deliv 2021; 28:1080-1092. [PMID: 34114924 PMCID: PMC8204985 DOI: 10.1080/10717544.2021.1931558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The principal goal of the present investigation was to enterprise new and effective drug delivery vesicle for the sustained delivery of local anesthetic lidocaine hydrochloride (LDC), using a novel combination of copolymeric hydrogel with tetrahydroxyborate (COP–THB) to improve bioactivity and therapeutic potential. To support this contention, the physical and mechanical properties, rheological characteristics, and component release of candidate formulations were investigated. An optimized formulation of COP–THB containing LDC to an upper maximum concentration of 1.5% w/w was assessed for drug crystallization. The biocompatibility of the prepared COP–THB hydrogel was exhibited strong cell survival (96%) and growth compatibility on L929 fibroblast cell lines, which was confirmed by using methods of MTT assay and microscopic observations. The COP–THB hydrogel release pattern is distinct from that of COP–THB/LDC hydrogels by the slow-release rate and the low percentage of cumulative release. In vivo evaluations were demonstrated the anesthetic effects and toxicity value of treated samples by using mice models. In addition, COP–THB/LDC hydrogels significantly inhibit in vivo tumor growth in mice model and effectively reduced it is in vivo toxicity. The pharmacological evaluation showed that encapsulation of LDC in COP–THB hydrogels prolonged its anesthetic action with favorable in vitro and in vivo compatibility. This novel design may theoretically be used in promising studies involving the controlled release of local anesthetics.Highlights Development a modified sustained release system for the local anesthetic lidocaine. PVP-THB hydrogel to improve the pharmacological properties of the drug and their anesthetic activities. Profiles of PVP-THB/LDC showed that the effective release of associated lidocaine. This new formulation could potentially be used in future local anesthetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Erxian Zhao
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Li Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Liying Bai
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
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14
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Schmid SM, Genter CI, Heinemann C, Steinhoff-Wagner J. Impact of tearing spermatic cords during castration in live and dead piglets and consequences on welfare. Porcine Health Manag 2021; 7:17. [PMID: 33583429 PMCID: PMC7883445 DOI: 10.1186/s40813-021-00200-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 02/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Although the tearing of tissues during castration is forbidden in the EU, it is still routinely applied in many countries. The goal of this study was to evaluate vocalizations and movements of male piglets undergoing castration by applying different techniques and pain treatments based on scores under practical conditions (Trial 1, n = 50) and to investigate anatomical features after castration of dead piglets with different techniques (Trial 2, n = 28). Results In Trial 1, treatment groups did not significantly influence the duration of castration. Both the duration of vocalization and the scores for vocalizations and movements were lower in piglets castrated under general anesthesia (P < 0.05). Behavior scores in conscious piglets did not differ. The incision and extraction caused lower vocalizations and movements than the pulling and severing of spermatic cords (P < 0.01). Movements were more intense during tearing of the spermatic cords than during cutting at the first and second severing (P < 0.01). In both trials, the remains of spermatic cords protruded tendentially more often from castration wounds after severing by tearing (P < 0.09). In Trial 2, the minimum, mean and maximum lengths of the testicles and spermatic cords were extended when severing was realized by tearing (P < 0.01). The mean relative testicle weight of 1.05‰ in dead piglets castrated by tearing was larger than that in dead piglets castrated by cutting (0.91‰) (P < 0.05). Conclusions The trials uncovered significant differences between behavior expressed by piglets castrated by tearing or cutting, indicating a higher pain level in the tearing group. It was found that the castration technique tearing increased the amount of removed tissues and might cause intraabdominal damage to the remaining tissues and vessels in a yet unknown dimension. These findings should be considered for implementation and stricter enforcement of the ban on tearing for castration. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40813-021-00200-7.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone M Schmid
- Institute of Animal Science, University of Bonn, 53115, Bonn, Germany
| | - Chiara I Genter
- Institute of Animal Science, University of Bonn, 53115, Bonn, Germany
| | - Céline Heinemann
- Institute of Animal Science, University of Bonn, 53115, Bonn, Germany
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