Supporting Zoo Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) Welfare and Herd Dynamics with a More Complex and Expanded Habitat

The historical development of zoo elephant survivorship

In the discussion about zoo elephant husbandry, the report of Clubb et al. (2008, Science 322: 1649) that zoo elephants had a "compromised survivorship" compared to certain non-zoo populations is a grave argument, and was possibly one of the triggers of a large variety of investigations into zoo elephant welfare, and changes in zoo elephant management. A side observation of that report was that whereas survivorship in African elephants (Loxodonta africana) improved since 1960, this was not the case in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). We used historical data (based on the Species360 database) to revisit this aspect, including recent developments since 2008. Assessing the North American and European populations from 1910 until today, there were significant improvements of adult (≥10 years) survivorship in both species. For the period from 1960 until today, survivorship improvement was significant for African elephants and close to a significant improvement in Asian elephants; Asian elephants generally had a higher survivorship than Africans. Juvenile (<10 years) survivorship did not change significantly since 1960 and was higher in African elephants, most likely due to the effect of elephant herpes virus on Asian elephants. Current zoo elephant survivorship is higher than some, and lower than some other non-zoo populations. We discuss that in our view, the shape of the survivorship curve, and its change over time, are more relevant than comparisons with specific populations. Zoo elephant survivorship should be monitored continuously, and the expectation of a continuous trend towards improvement should be met.

Welfare Through Competence: A Framework for Animal-Centric Technology Design

Digital technologies offer new ways to ensure that animals can lead a good life in managed settings. As interactive enrichment and smart environments appear in zoos, farms, shelters, kennels and vet facilities, it is essential that the design of such technologies be guided by clear, scientifically-grounded understandings of what animals need and want, to be successful in improving their wellbeing. The field of Animal-Computer Interaction proposes that this can be achieved by centering animals as stakeholders in technology design, but there remains a need for robust methods to support interdisciplinary teams in placing animals' interests at the heart of design projects. Responding to this gap, we present the Welfare through Competence framework, which is grounded in contemporary animal welfare science, established technology design practices and applied expertise in animal-centered design. The framework brings together the “Five Domains of Animal Welfare” model and the “Coe Individual Competence” model, and provides a structured approach to defining animal-centric objectives and refining them through the course of a design project. In this paper, we demonstrate how design teams can use this framework to promote positive animal welfare in a range of managed settings. These much-needed methodological advances contribute a new theoretical foundation to debates around the possibility of animal-centered design, and offer a practical agenda for creating technologies that support a good life for animals.

The Neurobiology of Behavior and Its Applicability for Animal Welfare: A Review

Simple Summary

Animal welfare is the result of physical and psychological well-being and is expected to occur if animals are free: (1) from hunger, thirst and malnutrition, (2) from discomfort, (3) from pain, (4) to express normal behavior, and (5) from fear and distress. Nevertheless, well-being is not a constant state but rather the result of certain brain dynamics underlying innate motivated behaviors and learned responses. Thus, by understanding the foundations of the neurobiology of behavior we fathom how emotions and well-being occur in the brain. Herein, we discuss the potential applicability of this approach for animal welfare. First, we provide a general view of the basic responses coordinated by the central nervous system from the processing of internal and external stimuli. Then, we discuss how those stimuli mediate activity in seven neurobiological systems that evoke innate emotional and behavioral responses that directly influence well-being and biological fitness. Finally, we discuss the basic mechanisms of learning and how it affects motivated responses and welfare.

Abstract

Understanding the foundations of the neurobiology of behavior and well-being can help us better achieve animal welfare. Behavior is the expression of several physiological, endocrine, motor and emotional responses that are coordinated by the central nervous system from the processing of internal and external stimuli. In mammals, seven basic emotional systems have been described that when activated by the right stimuli evoke positive or negative innate responses that evolved to facilitate biological fitness. This review describes the process of how those neurobiological systems can directly influence animal welfare. We also describe examples of the interaction between primary (innate) and secondary (learned) processes that influence behavior.

Epidemiology of Traumatic Tusk Fractures of Managed Elephants in North America, South America, Europe, Asia and Australia

Elephant tusk fractures are a management and medical challenge that can escalate into life-threatening complications. Here, an international survey was sent to elephant managers to understand the risk factors associated with tusk fractures since 2009, identifying best practices for reducing the incidence. Out of 459 elephants included in the survey, 85 elephants incurred at least one fracture. Though not statistically significant, descriptive statistics identified a trend for both Asian and African elephant males to be more likely to incur a fracture than females. Additionally, the first reported fracture occurred in males of both species approximately ten years earlier in age than females. The most common causes of fractures were conspecific interactions (44.6%), caught tusk in an enclosure or enrichment item (28.4%), and a strike by the elephant of a tusk with an object (12.2%). For social causes, unstable hierarchy (45.5%) and specific agonistic interactions (36.4%) were the most frequently cited fracture causes. Steel gates were associated with 23.8% of fractures caused by enclosure elements. Management changes including tusk trimming, enrichment, training, and re-arranging social groups were found to be important in reducing subsequent fractures, with odds ratios showing that a second tusk fracture was 6.37 times more likely to occur if no management changes occurred after the first fracture. Our data suggests that targeted management strategies in herds with maturing males, unstable social dynamics, and/or high-risk enclosure elements could reduce the frequency of tusk fractures.

Out of Sight, Out of Mind or Just Something in the Way? Visual Barriers Do Not Reduce Intraspecific Agonism in an All-Male Group of Nile Crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus)

Simple Summary

The behavior of animals living in zoos and aquariums is influenced by the exhibits they live in, similar to how the behavior of animals in nature is influenced by the ecosystem they inhabit. In zoos and aquariums, changes in exhibit design can be implemented to modify the behavior of animals to ensure they are experiencing optimal welfare. Here, we evaluated if the addition of visual barriers—physical barriers placed at the surface of the water—reduce aggression amongst male Nile crocodiles living in a zoo. Both short- and long-term monitoring found that visual barriers did not reduce aggression within the group. While ineffective at reducing aggression, this study represents the first evaluation of exhibit design in relation to the behavior of a crocodilian species in a zoo or aquarium setting. As a commonly managed taxa in zoos and aquariums, it is imperative that their behavior and welfare are assessed systematically. We hope the methodologies and learnings from this study encourage future study of crocodilian behavior and welfare.

Abstract

Here, we evaluated if visual barriers could reduce intraspecific agonism in an all-male group of Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) living in a zoo. Crocodiles were monitored for nearly 100 h, and four “hotspots” of aggression within their exhibit were identified. Within these four locations, visual barriers were placed at the surface of the water with the goal of reducing agonism by targeting sight lines associated with their species-typical minimum exposure posture, where crocodiles submerge their body but maintain facial sensory organs above the water line. Crocodile behavior was then monitored for 226 h, evaluating both short- and long-term effects of the visual barriers. In both observation periods, intraspecific agonism was unaffected by visual barriers. However, crocodiles were more likely to be on land and closer together, after the barriers were installed, showing the barriers affected nonagonistic behaviors. Monitoring of such unintended effects is significant to ensure no welfare concerns are created in any exhibit or husbandry modification attempt. Additionally, time of day and temperature were significant predictors of behavior, highlighting the importance of such factors in the analysis of reptilian behavior. While ineffective at reducing agonism, this is the first published study evaluating exhibit design and behavior of crocodilians in zoos and aquariums. The methodologies and findings here should provide useful information for future behavioral and welfare studies of this understudied taxa.