Antimicrobial Resistance in Bacteria Isolated from Exotic Pets: The Situation in the Iberian Peninsula

Non-traditional small companion mammals in Spain as reservoirs of antimicrobial-resistant Staphylococci

Introduction

The increasing prevalence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and multidrug resistance (MDR) in microorganisms poses a significant concern in both human and veterinary medicine. Non-traditional companion animals (NTCAs), particularly popular amongst households with children, play a crucial role in AMR epidemiology due to their rising population. Indeed, it is known that some of these animals may act as reservoirs of zoonotic pathogens and thus be able to spread and transmit them to family members, along with their AMR, through their shared environment. It is therefore imperative to address this concern with the involvement of human, animal and environmental health professionals. This pilot study aimed to assess the prevalence and AMR patterns of Staphylococcus spp. strains obtained from commensal mucosal and skin infection samples in NTC small mammals, with a focus on strains like methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus spp. (MRS) that are critical in public health.

Methods

For this purpose, 81 animals of different small mammal species were sampled, assessing antimicrobial susceptibility to 27 relevant antimicrobial agents (AMAs) in human health using minimum inhibitory concentration assays, and interpreting them according to EUCAST and CLSI guidelines. The isolated Staphylococci strains were identified by MALDI-TOF, with the predominant species being Mammalicoccus sciuri and Staphylococcus aureus.

Results and discussion

Including all strains isolated, AMR was observed against all 27 AMAs, including six last-resort AMAs in human medicine. Additionally, over 85% of the strains exhibited MDR. These findings underscore the need to monitor AMR and MDR trends in companion animals and emphasise the potential role of NTCAs in spreading resistance to humans, other animals, and their shared environment, calling for a comprehensive "One Health" approach.

Risk Communication on Zoonoses and Antimicrobial Resistance-How Do Exotic Pet Owners Perceive the Communication of Their Veterinarians?

Exotic animals traded and kept as pets can transmit a variety of diseases to humans and other animals, and vice versa. Therefore, it is essential for pet owners, particularly vulnerable groups, to be informed about associated risks. Veterinarians play a crucial role in informing pet owners about health risks associated with zoonotic pathogens and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and should, therefore, have good communication skills to effectively transfer information to pet owners. Thus, exotic pet owners in Germany were surveyed on animal husbandry, veterinary consultation and risk communication. To evaluate the perception of communication, a self-developed questionnaire was used to derive a communication score. The perception of veterinarian communication received a high average score showing a high level of satisfaction. The duration of the veterinarian-client relationship was associated with better communication perception, and the frequency of communication on zoonoses and AMR was associated with the presence of a permanent veterinarian. However, the results indicated that the frequency of disseminated information on zoonoses and/or AMR from veterinarians was lower than desired by the pet owners. Therefore, more educational material on zoonoses and AMR should be made available, and the awareness concerning risk communication should be increased by further education and training at universities.

Virulence determinants and antibiotic resistance in staphylococci isolated from the skin of captive bred reptiles

Knowledge of the composition and properties of skin microbiota in healthy reptiles is essential for preservation strategies and thus the prevention of skin dysbiosis leading to dermatological diseases. Despite the greatly increasing popularity of reptiles as pets, only a few studies have dealt with this topic. Therefore, the aim of this work was to analyse species composition of bacteria isolated from skin swabs of 40 reptiles (17 species) using MALDI-TOF spectrometry and to characterise the virulence properties of identified staphylococci (n = 51). The most common species were Staphylococcus xylosus and S. sciuri. Bacilli, enterococci, Escherichia coli, Salmonella sp. and Acinetobacter sp. were also common. The most frequent antimicrobial resistance in staphylococcal isolates was observed for ampicillin (100.0%) and cefoxitin (98.0%) with the blaZ gene being most prevalent (58.8%). In contrast, all staphylococci were susceptible to gentamicin, kanamycin and imipenem. Slime and biofilm production was observed in 86.3% and 76.5% of isolates, respectively. Gelatinase, DNase, protease and lipase activity was found more rarely (41.2%; 25.5%; 27.5% and 21.6%). Since reptiles are a reservoir of bacteria for their owners, common multi-drug resistance (84.3%, MAR index average 0.29 ± 0.09) and biofilm formation must be kept in mind, especially in the case of injury when handling reptiles.

Exploring the Prevalence of Antimicrobial Resistance in Salmonella and commensal Escherichia coli from Non-Traditional Companion Animals: A Pilot Study

Companion animal ownership has evolved to new exotic animals, including small mammals, posing a new public health challenge, especially due to the ability of some of these new species to harbour zoonotic bacteria, such as Salmonella, and spread their antimicrobial resistances (AMR) to other bacteria through the environment they share. Therefore, the objective of the present pilot study was to evaluate the current epidemiological AMR situation in commensal Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp., in non-traditional companion animal small mammals in the Valencia region. For this purpose, 72 rectal swabs of nine different species of small mammals were taken to assess the antimicrobial susceptibility against 28 antibiotics. A total of one Salmonella enterica serovar Telelkebir 13,23:d:e,n,z15 and twenty commensal E. coli strains were isolated. For E. coli strains, a high prevalence of AMR (85%) and MDR (82.6%) was observed, although neither of them had access outside the household. The highest AMR were observed in quinolones, one of the highest priority critically important antimicrobials (HPCIAs) in human medicine. However, no AMR were found for Salmonella. In conclusion, the results showed that small mammals' commensal E. coli poses a public health risk due to the high AMR found, and the ability of this bacterium to transmit its resistance genes to other bacteria. For this reason, this pilot study highlighted the need to establish programmes to control AMR trends in the growing population of new companion animals, as they could disseminate AMR to humans and animals through their shared environment.

Drug prescription pattern in exotic pet and wildlife animal practice: a retrospective study in a Spanish veterinary teaching hospital from 2018 to 2022

Exotic companion animals have had an important role in our society since ancient times. Preserving animal health is necessary to do a responsible use of veterinary medicines. This study aimed to describe the prescription patterns of drugs in exotic pets and wildlife animals attending the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of the University of León (HVULE). A retrospective study was carried out between 2018 and 2022. Birds were the largest group of exotic animals attending the HVULE. Visits were related to emergency reasons and for musculoskeletal disorders. One-third of the animals were eventually euthanised. Regarding pharmacological treatments, the most frequently active ingredients used were pentobarbital, isoflurane, meloxicam, and within antibiotics, marbofloxacin (category B in the classification of European Medicines Agency).

Antibiotic usage patterns in exotic pets: A study in Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil

Background

The link between the reckless use of antimicrobials with the increasing development of multidrug-resistant strains of antibiotics is well established. To control the spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), action plans, recommendations and guidelines on the prudent use of antibiotics have been developed for food-producing animals and companion animals but appear to be lacking in exotic pets due to the scarcity of data and information on the use of antibiotics in these species.

Aim

The purpose of this study is to bring qualitative and quantitative data regarding the use of antimicrobials in exotic pets in a veterinary center in southern Brazil, seeking to measure the consumption of these animals to determine and guide future actions to combat AMR.

Methods

A retrospective observational study was conducted by surveying 2,190 open care records in a specialized clinic of wildlife medicine in 2018. Data evaluation was performed in a descriptive, qualitative, and quantitative way, and the analysis of antimicrobial consumption was performed by calculating the daily dose/g of animal ml/day/kg by animal order, condition and active principle, adaptation to DDDVet. For statistical analysis, Levene´s, ANOVA followed by Tukey´s tests were used.

Results

Approximately 57% (1250/2190) of the visits made use of one or more antimicrobials in the treatment of animals referred to the clinic. Of these, 67% (n = 839) were birds, 26% (n = 327) were mammals, and 7% (n = 84) were reptiles. In 2018, the total consumption of antimicrobials prescribed was 2.21 l for a total biomass of 129.24 kg. The relation between the dosages of the main antimicrobials used and the conditions treated showed that there is no variation between the treatments by disease and by animal class, due to the great variation within each group.

Conclusion

The antimicrobial prescription in exotic pets requires a multifaceted and dynamic approach applied to safeguard the efficacy of the antimicrobials, optimizing consumption, minimizing the emergence of AMR and other possible adverse effects, and considering the physiological differences present within each species. The doses between the different classes and conditions do not obtain a significant difference, reflected in a possible nonstandardization of the dosages used, requiring further investigation of the recommended dosages for each animal species, avoiding the over or underdosing of these drugs. It is worth highlighting that professionals must always make rational use of antimicrobials in these species.

Study of Zoonotic Pathogens in Alien Population of Veiled Chameleons (Chamaeleo calyptratus) in the Canary Islands (Spain)

Veiled chameleons (Chamaeleo calyptratus) are native to the Arabian Peninsula that have been introduced as pets in many regions around the world, such as the Canary Islands (Spain). In this work, the gastrointestinal content from veiled chameleons of Gran Canaria island (Canary Islands) has been analyzed to determine the presence of zoonotic bacteria. Forty animals were analyzed using different selective culture media and PCR. The most isolated bacteria were Yersinia enterocolitica (52.4%), followed by Salmonella spp. (40.0%), with positive isolates for Salmonella Tyhpi and Salmonella Typhimurium. Pseudomonas spp. was found in 32.5% of the chameleons. More than half were positive for Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antibiotic-resistant Staphylococcus spp. was detected in six animals plus one isolate of non-resistant Staphylococcus hominis. Multiple mycobacteria species belonging to both tuberculous and non-tuberculous complexes were identified as well as Escherichia coli carrying the stx₁ and eae virulence genes with 12.5% and 7.5% prevalence, respectively. Listeria monocytogenes, Campylobacter spp., and Vibrio spp. were found in lower proportion (<5%). The results obtained indicate that veiled chameleons in Gran Canaria could be playing a role in the maintenance and dissemination of the pathogens detected, harming public health and biodiversity.

Current Situation of Bacterial Infections and Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles in Pet Rabbits in Spain

Research on antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in pet rabbits is very scarce. The aim of this study was to provide an overview of the current state of AMR in rabbits attended to in veterinary clinics distributed in Spain. Records of 3596 microbiological results of clinical cases submitted from 2010 to 2021 were analyzed. Staphylococcus spp. (15.8%), Pseudomonas spp. (12.7%), Pasteurella spp. (10%), Bordetella spp. (9.6%) and Streptococcus spp. (6.8%) were the most frequently diagnosed agents. Enterobacteriaceae, principally Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Enterobacter cloacae, accounted for about 18% of the cases and showed the highest proportion of multi-drug resistance (MDR) isolates, with 48%, 57.5% and 36% of MDR, respectively. Regarding the antimicrobial susceptibility testing for a number of antimicrobial categories/families, the largest proportion of isolates showing resistance to a median of five antimicrobial categories was observed in P. aeruginosa, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia and Burkolderia spp. In contrast, infections caused by Staphylococcus, Streptococcus spp. and Pasteurella multocida were highly sensitive to conventional antimicrobials authorized for veterinary use (categories D and C). The emergence of AMR major nosocomial opportunistic pathogens such as P. aeruginosa, S. maltophilia and K. pneumoniae in pet rabbits can represent a serious public health challenge. Consequently, collaboration between veterinarians and human health professionals is crucial in the fight against antimicrobial resistance, to optimize, rationalize and prudently use antimicrobial therapies in domestic animals and humans.