Housing Horses in Individual Boxes Is a Challenge with Regard to Welfare

Management of Donkeys in Assisted Interventions: A Snapshot

People working in the field of Animal-Assisted Interventions (AAIs) often state that they perceive animal welfare as a matter of paramount importance; nevertheless, most scientific literature focuses on the effectiveness of interventions from the user's perspective. Before focusing on the animals' management and welfare during their interactions with users, it is important to ensure animal welfare during their "ordinary lives". This article reports information and considerations about the management of donkeys involved in AAIs in Northern Italy. Six facilities with several years of experience in Donkey-Assisted Interventions were visited for the purpose of an initial data collection regarding the management of donkeys involved in AAIs. Some knowledge gaps regarding the nutritional needs of the donkey and its preventive medicine have been identified; this study also highlighted a need for efforts to create a more stimulating and enriched environment for animals involved in AAIs. Some possible areas for improvement in the management of donkeys involved in AAIs have been highlighted. Further studies are necessary to provide a more comprehensive picture of the welfare of donkeys involved in this context.

Transcriptomic signature related to poor welfare of sport horses

The improvement of horse welfare through housing conditions has become a real issue in recent years and have highlighted the detrimental effect of individual housing of horses on their health and behaviour. In this new study, we analysed the blood transcriptome of 45 sport horses housed individually that were previously examined for their behaviour and gut microbiota. We performed differential and regression analyses of gene expression, followed by downstream bioinformatic analyses, to unveil the molecular pathways related to the behavioural changes associated with welfare impairment in these sport horses. We found that aggressiveness towards humans was the behavioural indicator the most correlated to blood gene expression and that the pathways involved belonged mainly to systemic inflammation. In contrast, the correlations between genes, alert postures and unresponsiveness towards the environment were weak. When blood gene expression profiling was combined with faecal microbiota of a sub-population of horses, stereotypies came out as the most correlated to blood gene expression. This study shows that aggressiveness towards humans and stereotypies are behavioural indicators that covary with physiological alterations. Further studies are needed regarding the biological correlates of unresponsiveness to the environment and alert postures.

Horses discriminate between human facial and vocal expressions of sadness and joy

Communication of emotions plays a key role in intraspecific social interactions and likely in interspecific interactions. Several studies have shown that animals perceive human joy and anger, but few studies have examined other human emotions, such as sadness. In this study, we conducted a cross-modal experiment, in which we showed 28 horses two soundless videos simultaneously, one showing a sad, and one a joyful human face. These were accompanied by either a sad or joyful voice. The number of horses whose first look to the video that was incongruent with the voice was longer than their first look to the congruent video was higher than chance, suggesting that horses could form cross-modal representations of human joy and sadness. Moreover, horses were more attentive to the videos of joy and looked at them for longer, more frequently, and more rapidly than the videos of sadness. Their heart rates tended to increase when they heard joy and to decrease when they heard sadness. These results show that horses are able to discriminate facial and vocal expressions of joy and sadness and may form cross-modal representations of these emotions; they also are more attracted to joyful faces than to sad faces and seem to be more aroused by a joyful voice than a sad voice. Further studies are needed to better understand how horses perceive the range of human emotions, and we propose that future experiments include neutral stimuli as well as emotions with different arousal levels but a same valence.

Racehorse welfare across a training season

Racehorse welfare is gaining increasing public attention, however scientific evidence in this area is lacking. In order to develop a better understanding of racehorse welfare, it must be measured and monitored. This is the first study to assess racehorse welfare using scientific objective methods across a training season. The aim of this study was threefold, firstly to investigate welfare measures which could be used in the first welfare assessment protocol for racehorses. Secondly, to understand the effect that a racing and training season had on individual racehorses and thirdly to identify risk factors for both good and poor welfare. Thirteen racehorse training yards were visited at the beginning and the peak of the racing season in England. Behavioral observations along with individual environmental and animal-based welfare measures were carried out on 353 horses in 13 training yards selected for variability. In our sample the horses were generally in good physical health: 94% of horses recorded as an ideal body condition score, no horses had signs of hoof neglect and 77.7% had no nasal discharge. The overall prevalence of external Mouth Corner Lesions was 12.9% and was significantly higher for Flat racing than Jump racing horses. The majority of horses (67.5%) showed positive horse human interactions. When stabled 54.1% horses had physical social contact and nasal discharge was not associated with increased physical contact. The training season significantly affected Human Reactivity Tests, Horse Grimace Scale scores and time spent resting and feeding. A total of 14.5% of horses displayed stereotypic behavior on at least two occasions. Horses with windows in their stables spent more time surveying their surroundings. Overall, in this population of racehorses, horses spent around a third of their daytime feeding (33.7%) followed by time spent standing resting (22.6%). The welfare assessment protocol used in this study is suitable for use in industry to collect welfare data on racehorses.

Social Box: A New Housing System Increases Social Interactions among Stallions

In domestic conditions, adult stallions are mostly housed individually in internal stables to reduce the risk of injuries during social interactions. Social deprivation in horses results in physiological stress and behavioural problems. The aim of this study was to test the "social box" (SB), which allows closer physical contact between neighbouring horses. Eight pairs of stallions (n = 16) were filmed over a 24 h period in the SB and in their usual box stables, "conventional boxes" (CB), which strongly restrict tactile contact. The effect of housing in the SB on behaviour and the occurrence and characteristics of injuries was investigated. The total duration of active social interactions was significantly higher in the SB than in the CB (51.1 vs. 4.9 min, p < 0.0001). Positive interactions accounted for about 71% of the total duration of interactions in SB and CB stabling. The stallions interacted significantly more often in the SB than in the CB (113.5 vs. 23.8 social interaction sequences over 24 h, p < 0.0001). No grievous injuries were recorded. The social box appears to be a suitable solution to give adult stallions the possibility of having physical interactions. Therefore, it can be considered a substantial environmental enrichment for singly housed horses.

The impact of strategic ventilation adjustments on stress responses in horses housed full-time in a vector-protected barn during the African horse sickness outbreak in Thailand

The severe outbreak of African horse sickness (AHS) in Thailand has forced horses to reside full-time inside barns that are covered by a small mesh net to prevent minuscule AHS insect vectors from gaining access. However, housing in the net-covered barn induces stress in horses, which compromises their welfare. Implementing strategic airflow adjustment while retaining the vector-protection characteristics has been proposed to help alleviate this problem. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of strategic ventilation adjustment on blood cortisol levels, heart rate and behaviour in horses in a vector-protected barn. Nine horses underwent two sequential stabling conditions: vector-protected barn housing and housing in a barn in which the air ventilation was explicitly adjusted. Heart rate was higher in the afternoon in horses housed in the barn without ventilation adjustment, whereas no change was observed in the barn with ventilation adjustment. The vector-protected housing increased the horses' behavioural scores. Blood cortisol level declined over time, and an earlier decrease was detected at 1400h in the barn with ventilation adjustment. Although airflow adjustment did not appear to statistically alter the stress response in horses during housing in the vector-protected barn, an earlier decline in cortisol level alongside an unchanged heart rate in horses during the day may indicate the positive impact of ventilation adjustment within the vector-protected barn. With limited options to reduce stress or discomfort in horses, this strategic protocol could, at least in part, be applied to managing horses' welfare during the AHS outbreak.

Does housing system affect horse welfare? The AWIN welfare assessment protocol applied to horses kept in an outdoor group-housing system: The 'parcours'

Outdoor group housing is generally reported as being beneficial to the welfare of horses compared to single boxes, being considered to show greater similarities with the living conditions of feral horses, allowing full expression of behaviours such as grazing, social interactions and free movement. However, concerns persist regarding the ability to maintain a good nutritional state and the possibility of acquiring injury. No data reporting a comprehensive assessment of welfare for horses in outdoor group-housing systems are currently available. The present study aimed at applying a scientifically valid welfare assessment protocol to group-housed outdoor horses in 'parcours', a particular management system used in the south of France. 'Parcours' are semi-natural areas, grazed by domestic herbivores located in lowland, mountain, or marsh. One hundred and seventy-one horses older than a year pertaining to six farms and kept on 'parcours' were evaluated by a trained veterinarian using a modified version of the second level Animal Welfare Indicators (AWIN) welfare assessment protocol for horses. No major welfare issues were detected. Horses in 'parcours' displayed few abnormal behaviours, they could move freely for most of the day and interact with conspecifics, maintaining a healthy state of nutrition and a good relationship with humans. The main welfare concerns were related to the presence of superficial integument alterations such as alopecia, difficulty in reaching quality controlled water sources and a lack of shelter. As the number of facilities involved in this study is relatively limited, further harmonised data collection should aim to enlarge the sample size and allow comparison with different outdoor group-housing conditions.

Horse welfare: A joint assessment of four categories of behavioural indicators using the AWIN protocol, scan sampling and surveys

Domesticated horses ( Equus caballus) can be exposed to a compromised welfare state and detecting a deterioration in welfare is essential to modify the animals' living conditions appropriately. This study focused on four categories of behavioural indicators, as markers of poor welfare: stereotypies, aggressiveness towards humans, unresponsiveness to the environment and hypervigilance. In the scientific literature, at least three assessment methods can be used to evaluate them: the Animal Welfare Indicators (AWIN) protocol, behavioural observations using scans and surveys. The question remains as to whether all these three methods allow an effective assessment of the four categories of behavioural indicators. To address this issue, the repeatability at a three-month interval and convergent validity of each measure (correlations between methods) were investigated on 202 horses housed in loose boxes. Overall, the repeatability and convergent validity were limited, highlighting the difficulty in assessing these indicators in horses. However, stereotypies and aggressiveness measures showed higher repeatability and convergent validity than those of unresponsiveness to the environment and hypervigilance. Behavioural observations using scans enabled the four categories of behavioural indicators to be detected more effectively. Suggestions of improvements are proposed for one-off measures such as those performed with the AWIN protocol. Regardless of the assessment method, very limited correlations were observed between the four categories of behavioural indicators, suggesting that they should all be included in a set of indicators used to assess the welfare state of horses, in conjunction with physiological and health measures.

Single housing but not changes in group composition causes stress-related immunomodulations in horses

Domestic horses are currently often subject to management practices that can entail social stressors, which in turn can negatively influence immunocompetence and disease susceptibility.

The present study therefore aimed to characterize the number of various blood leukocyte subsets in horses, focusing on two potentially stressful housing environments: changes in group composition and relocation to individual stabling. Immune measurements were conducted before as well as one and eight days after changes were made. They were complemented by an assessment of plasma cortisol concentrations as well as behavioral observations. One and eight days after relocation to single housing, the mean numbers of eosinophils, T helper cells and cytotoxic T cells decreased by up to 31%, 20% and 22% respectively, whereas the mean numbers of neutrophils increased by 25%. In contrast, one and eight days after changes in group composition not only the mean number of neutrophils, but also of monocytes, T helper cells and cytotoxic T cells increased by up to 24%, 17%, 9%, and 15% respectively. In consequence, an increase in the neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio indicating stress-induced immune modulation was found after relocation to single housing, but not after changes in group composition. The changes in leukocyte numbers after relocation to single housing were accompanied by a transient increase in cortisol concentrations after one day and the occurrence of disturbed behavior patterns one week after change in housing condition. In contrast, changes in group composition did not result in an increase of cortisol concentrations or in an increase of aggressive interactions. The results strongly indicate that individual stabling is an intense stressor leading to acute and lasting alterations in blood counts of various leukocyte types. The study highlights a probable negative impact of single housing on welfare and health of horses and an advantage of group housing systems in view of immunocompetence.

Assessment of Welfare in Groups of Horses with Different Management, Environments and Activities by Measuring Cortisol in Horsehair, Using Liquid Chromatography Coupled to Hybrid Orbitrap High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry

Horses have always been animals used for companionship, work, transportation, and performance purposes over the history of humanity; there are different ways of managing horses, but studies on how horse welfare is influenced by different activities and managements are scanty. Understanding how the management, the environment, and the different uses of horses can affect the level of stress and well-being is important not only for people associated with horses. Three groups of horses with different management, environments, and activities were selected: (1) stabled horses ridden frequently, (2) horses that perform public order service under the Italian state police, and (3) free-ranging horses. Cortisol analysis was carried out on horsehair samples using liquid chromatography coupled to hybrid orbitrap high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS/MS), a laboratory technique used for the first time to quantify horsehair cortisol. The selection of horses to be included in the three groups was carried out by including only subjects with positive welfare assessment in accordance with the horse welfare assessment protocol (AWIN). These analyses demonstrated that the cortisol levels detected in the horsehair of free-ranging animals were significantly higher compared to those detected in stabled and working horses. These results may have been a consequence of complex environmental, managerial, and behavioral factors, which should be worth further investigation

The Impact of Noise Anxiety on Behavior and Welfare of Horses from UK and US Owner’s Perspective

Noise anxiety is an over-reaction to loud noises commonly detected among pets and can greatly impact on their welfare and on their management. When exposed to noisy events, horses can show intense escape attempts, which may cause severe accidents for the horse and the rider/handler. The aim of the present study was to investigate, through a web survey, UK and US owners’ perception of noise anxiety severity in their horses, their management strategies and perceived efficacy. The questionnaire was shared via social networking and advertised as “What is your horse afraid of?”. Over a total of 1836 questionnaires filled out; 409 owners reported that their horse has shown unusual behavior during a noise event. A two-step cluster analysis identified two groups: very anxious (VA) and slightly anxious (SA). VA horses were reported to have higher frequency of anxiety behaviors; higher frequency of signs of noise reactivity; and their anxiety did not improve with time. The most used management strategies consisted in providing hay throughout the night, turning in/out their horse or moving it to a paddock. A binomial logistic regression identified that horses that have reported injuries during noise events were more likely to be clustered as VA (OR = 0.24, 95% CI: 0.08–0.76); while providing hay throughout the night was more likely to be very effective management strategy in SA horses (OR = 0.41, 95% CI: 0.16–1.01). Our results confirmed that noise anxiety is a growing behavioral problem that can lead to important welfare concerns for horses. New management strategies, including the use of medicinal products, should be considered to reduce behavioral and physiological signs and help horses to cope with noisy events.

Social Box: Influence of a New Housing System on the Social Interactions of Stallions When Driven in Pairs

In order to improve the housing conditions of stallions in individual boxes, we tested a so-called “social box” allowing increased physical contact between neighbouring horses. This study investigated whether housing stallions in social boxes changes the number of social interactions during carriage driving. We hypothesised that the stay in social boxes would decrease the number of unwanted social interactions between stallions when driven in pairs. Eight Franches-Montagnes breeding stallions were observed when driven in pairs with a “neutral” stallion housed in a so-called “conventional box”, strongly limiting physical contact. They were driven on a standardised route over the course of four days before, during, and after being housed in social boxes. The type and frequency of behaviours of the pairs and the interventions of the groom and the driver during the test drives were assessed live and using video recordings. Results from linear mixed-effect models show that unwanted social interactions decreased during and after the stallions were housed in the social box (p < 0.001). Stallions’ interactions also decreased over the four days (p < 0.01), suggesting a habituation to the test conditions by learning not to interact, or by subtly settling dominance. The social box tended to decrease unwanted social behaviours of stallions driven in pairs and could therefore be used as an environmental enrichment for horses.

Preliminary Behavioural Observations of Horseback Safaris: Initial Insights into the Welfare Implications for Horses and Herbivorous Plains Game Species

In Africa, wildlife-watching experiences create substantial revenue from tourists that can finance wildlife conservation. Horseback safaris, where an experienced guide takes guests through the bush on horseback to observe plains game species, are a popular activity. Close encounters between ridden horses and game species are unnatural and potentially stressful situations, and horseback safaris may have adverse impacts on both the horses and the wildlife they have come to observe. This study aims to provide a preliminary insight into the behavioural responses of horses and herbivorous plains game species, including giraffe, zebra and impala, as a proxy measure of the potential welfare implications of horseback safaris. Seventeen group safari rides were observed encompassing 72 encounters with plains game species. Game species differed in their response to encounters with the horseback safari ride. Equine response behaviour appeared to be influenced by the species of game encountered. Horses seemed more wary of giraffe than other species, with a higher percentage of horses showing stationary and retreat behaviour at the start of giraffe encounters. They were also most likely to shy at giraffe. The behavioural responses suggest that game encounters can elicit a stress response in both animal groups, although it is not usually extreme, potentially indicating that some degree of habituation has occurred. Balancing the welfare of both the horses and the plains game species along with tourist preferences may be challenging in this context.

A new approach to horse welfare based on systems thinking

Globally, calls for change in the horse industry to prioritise the health and well-being of domestic horses (Equus caballus) are reaching a critical threshold. Horse behaviour deemed undesirable or inconvenient by owners (henceforth referred to as undesirable behaviour) is reported across all aspects of a horse's life and may indicate a welfare issue. This study proposes a reconceptualisation of undesirable horse behaviour as a complex challenge based on systems thinking. Emerging from the natural sciences, systems thinking is an interdisciplinary approach to complex challenges (such as undesirable behaviour) as dynamic, highly interconnected networks of components and feedback relationships. This critical literature review examined the undesirable behaviours studied, the disciplines conducting research and their underpinning assumptions to identify opportunities for approaching research differently. Four themes emerged from the literature: undesirable behaviour is typically studied with unarticulated assumptions and in individual disciplines; behaviours are typically studied in isolation with the complexity of horse-human interactions generally not considered; management of behaviour typically has an anthropocentric linear 'cause and effect' focus; and solutions to undesirable behaviour are often short-term 'fixes' resulting in poor horse outcomes. From these, we outline the opportunities that each provide the next generation of horse research in terms of interdisciplinarity, systems thinking and management. Undesirable horse behaviour in a horse-human system is conceptually mapped in terms of factors associated with the behaviour (eg housing, stress, diet), and the relationships between them. Systems thinking offers a way to integrate multiple disciplines and identify and navigate new solutions to promote horse welfare.

Does Experience Make Hucul Horses More Resistant to Stress? A Pilot Study

The aim of the study was to determine whether experience related to horse age and number of starts in championships influences stress level, measured by salivary cortisol concentration. The study involved 18 clinically healthy Hucul mares who participated in the Polish Championships for Hucul Horses. Evaluation of performance value was carried out in accordance with the guidelines specified in the breeding and genetic resources conservation program for this breed. The championship lasted two days, consisting of conformation evaluation, endurance, and Hucul path. Saliva was collected at baseline (T1), after arena assessment (T2), after endurance (T3), and on the second day after the Hucul path (T4). Cortisol levels increased from an average of 2.73 ± 1.18 ng/mL (T1) to 10.46 ± 8.03 ng/mL after T3. Significantly lower levels of free cortisol were detected in the saliva of the younger mares, up to 9 years old, and mares who participated in only one qualifying path after each element of the championship. The highest levels of cortisol (T3) were found in mares competing repeatedly on the qualifying path. No correlation was found between cortisol levels and the championship results. Participation of mares in the championship was associated with stress, which was reflected in the increase in cortisol levels in saliva.

Aspects of Breeding Stallion Management with Specific Focus on Animal Welfare

Risk prevention is often counterproductive to stallions' living conditions when assessed under welfare aspects. In the wild, stallions live in social groups, but under domestic conditions, the majority of breeding stallions live in individual boxes with limited social contact. This stimulates aggressiveness and the incidence of stereotypic behavior. While racehorse stallions start their breeding career after having finished their performance career, riding horse stallions are often simultaneously used for breeding and performance. Training, performance, and the associated stress are unlikely to impair semen characteristics, but performing stallions may benefit from more opportunities for social contact. With regard to accommodation of stallions in single boxes, changes in the construction of the partition between them may help to improve social contact from merely visual to much more physical. This will help to reduce social isolation but requires careful observation if neighbors tend to either sympathize or fight with each other. Careful organization of the barn is thus of great importance. Under certain conditions, even keeping adult stallions in groups on spacious pastures is possible. Interestingly, the frequency of agonistic interactions usually decreases quickly and remains low after successful group integration. General changes in the husbandry of young stallions and at their transfer into the future career may help to produce stallions with better social skills and facilitate accommodation under improved welfare conditions.

Factors Associated With the Development and Prevalence of Abnormal Behaviors in Horses: Systematic Review With Meta-Analysis

Researchers believe that the development and prevalence of abnormal behaviors in horses may be caused by several environmental and biological factors, and the literature offers numerous reports that discuss the causes and effects of stereotypies in these animals. In this light, this study aimed to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of the scientific literature, summarizing the main risk factors associated with the development of abnormal behaviors in horses. The searches were conducted over the course of four years in Portuguese, Spanish, and English. The publications reviewed were full text research thesis or articles that addressed issues within the following criteria: (1) presentation of epidemiological information on the studied population; (2) prevalence of abnormal behaviors in equine populations; (3) factors associated with the development or prevalence of stereotypies. Data were extracted from each study and inserted into an Excel spreadsheet to be analyzed through descriptive statistics. In addition, the Mann-Whitney U test was used to verify the existence of significant differences between the methodologies (direct observation/questionnaires). The dataset was also analyzed through data mining to identify the main factors that influence the prevalence of abnormal behaviors in the studied population. The results showed a great variation in the mean prevalence of abnormal behaviors, with no significant difference between research conducted through questionnaires or direct observation, and the data mining technique identified that incorrect nutritional management may be the main factor influencing the development and prevalence of abnormal behaviors in horses.

Area and Resource Utilization of Group-Housed Horses in an Active Stable

Simple Summary

Horses are increasingly being kept in group stables where they are given the opportunity to move freely and to contact conspecifics. This study examined how the horses of a large group move in an active stable and which areas or resources they use over a period of 7.5 months with the help of linear mixed models. Therefore, a grid with the size of 3 × 3 m per square was applied. The horses used, on average, 53.2 ± 19 different squares per hour. It was shown that observation day (p < 0.001) and covariate age (p < 0.001) had significant effects on squares visited per hour. Sex (p = 0.30) and breed (p = 0.65) had no significant effects. A large variation in the squares visited per hour was determined for the individual horses. Most frequently visited were the individual resources, such as the feed stalls or lying halls. An open tarp skin lying hall was preferred over a metal hall. The shelters were only partly popular. An overview of the usage frequency of the paddock could be created by using heatmaps. Overall, specific conclusions about the use of individual areas and potential for improvement could be pointed out.

Abstract

The aim of this study was to analyze the utilization of different stable areas of a total of 52 group-housed horses as well as their preferred stable parts and the use of resources. The study was situated in a “HIT Active Stable^®” in Northern Germany for a period of 227 observation days. After dividing the whole farm area in a grid of 3 × 3 m, the dataset was examined with and without the pasture area. Furthermore, linear mixed models were applied. On average, horses used 53.2 ± 19 different squares per hour. The observation day (p < 0.001) and the covariate age (p < 0.001) had significant effects on the different squares visited per hour. No significant effects were found for sex (p = 0.30) and breed (p = 0.65) as only geldings and no stallions were part of the group and the distribution of the breeds was unfavorable. The random effect animal showed that the horse-individual estimates from −19.2 to 17.6 different squares visited per hour were quite large. Furthermore, it could be shown that the horses used resources such as feed stalls with a frequency of up to 0.14% more than other paddock areas without resources. Open lying halls with tarp skin were also preferred over the metal hall. The shelters were only partly popular. Use could be visualized with the help of heat maps. This study gives a good overview of the use of individual areas and resources and possible improvements.

Basic Needs in Horses?-A Literature Review

Simple Summary

All animals have requirements that are essential for their welfare, and when these basic needs are not met, the animal suffers. In horses, it is claimed that these needs include social contact, social companionship, free movement and access to roughage in the form of grass, hay and/or straw. To validate this claim, this review examines 38 studies that reported on horses’ responses when one or more of these factors are restricted. We categorised the type of responses investigated: (a) Stress (e.g., increased stress hormones), (b) Active (e.g., increased aggression), (c) Passive (e.g., depressive-like behaviour) and (d) Abnormal Behaviour (e.g., stereotypies), and analysed the frequencies with which the investigated responses were shown. Overall, the studies reported that horses did react to restrictions in the described basic needs, especially to combinations of restricted social contact, free movement and access to roughage. The observation of passive responses and the development of abnormal behaviour provided compelling evidence that horses were suffering under these restrictions, and existing abnormal behaviours indicated that they had suffered at some time in the past. We conclude that the literature supports the claim that social contact, free movement and access to roughage are basic needs in horses and need to be taken into consideration to ensure their mental and physical welfare in management and training.

Abstract

Every animal species has particular environmental requirements that are essential for its welfare, and when these so-called “basic needs” are not fulfilled, the animals suffer. The basic needs of horses have been claimed to be social contact, social companionship, free movement and access to roughage. To assess whether horses suffer when one or more of the four proposed basic needs are restricted, we examined several studies (n = 38) that reported behavioural and physiological reactions to these restrictions. We assigned the studies according to the four types of responses investigated: (a) Stress, (b) Active, (c) Passive, and (d) Abnormal Behaviour. Furthermore, the number of studies indicating that horses reacted to the restrictions were compared with the number of studies reporting no reaction. The limited number of studies available on single management restrictions did not allow conclusions to be drawn on the effect of each restriction separately, especially in the case of social companionship. However, when combinations of social contact, free movement and access to roughage were restricted, many of the horses had developed responses consistent with suffering. Passive Responses, indicating acute suffering, and Abnormal Behaviour, indicating suffering currently or at some time in the past, were especially clearly demonstrated. This provides further evidence of the usefulness of assessing behavioural parameters in combination with physiological measurements when evaluating horse welfare. This meta-analysis of the literature confirms that it is justified to claim that social contact, free movement and access to roughage are basic needs in horses.

Gut microbiota resilience in horse athletes following holidays out to pasture

Elite horse athletes that live in individual boxes and train and compete for hours experience long-term physical and mental stress that compromises animal welfare and alters the gut microbiota. We therefore assessed if a temporary period out to pasture with conspecifics could improve animal welfare and in turn, favorably affect intestinal microbiota composition. A total of 27 athletes were monitored before and after a period of 1.5 months out to pasture, and their fecal microbiota and behavior profiles were compared to those of 18 horses kept in individual boxes. The overall diversity and microbiota composition of pasture and control individuals were temporally similar, suggesting resilience to environmental challenges. However, pasture exposure induced an increase in Ruminococcus and Coprococcus that lasted 1-month after the return to individual boxes, which may have promoted beneficial effects on health and welfare. Associations between the gut microbiota composition and behavior indicating poor welfare were established. Furthermore, withdrawn behavior was associated with the relative abundances of Lachnospiraceae AC2044 group and Clostridiales family XIII. Both accommodate a large part of butyrate-producing bacterial genera. While we cannot infer causality within this study, arguably, these findings suggest that management practices maintained over a longer period of time may moderate the behavior link to the gut ecosystem beyond its resilience potential.

Evaluation of Oxidative Stress Parameters in Healthy Saddle Horses in Relation to Housing Conditions, Presence of Stereotypies, Age, Sex and Breed

Oxidative stress plays an important role in the development of many horse diseases and it has been shown that housing has important implications for the psychophysical well-being of horses. The aim of this study is to determine if there are any differences between the redox status in horses in relation to housing conditions. The four housing conditions analyzed were: single box, without external access and without contact (Cat A), single box with external access and possibility of partial contact (Cat B), group housing with box and large paddock (Cat C), pasture with more than 7 horses and the possibility of green forage for the whole year (Cat D). A group of 117 healthy horses were selected in several private stables in Northern Italy. All subjects treated with any type of drug were excluded. At the end of the enrollment, the 117 selected horses were divided into the four housing categories. Stereotypies were highest in the group of horses in single box, without external access and without contact (Cat A). Oxidative stress was evaluated by testing plasma or serum samples for the following parameters: superoxide anion (WST), nitric oxide (NO), reactive oxygen species (d-ROMs), ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP), and the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD). Simultaneously with the blood sampling, the owners completed a questionnaire with all the management aspects of the horse (signaling, feeding, equestrian activity, vaccinations, foot management etc.). The statistical evaluation was carried out based on the categories previously described, on the presence and absence of stereotypies and on some signaling data obtained from the questionnaire. There were no significant differences in the parameters analyzed between the categories. No significant redox status differences were detected based on the presence or absence of stereotypies. Interestingly, when the age was introduced as selection (<14 and >14 years old) parameter inside the categories, statistical significance was observed for some of the stress markers considered. Finally, independently of the housing conditions, the horses of the most two represented breeds exhibited different values of FRAP. All these aspects are commented in the discussion.

Measurement of Endurance of Untrained Five-Year-Old and Six-Year-Old Horses Raised in Multi-age Herds on Pasture

The objective of this study was to explore how the endurance of five-year-old horses, kept out on pasture all their life and ridden for the first time well into their fifth year of age, developed within one year and compared to that of six-year-old horses raised under the same conditions and to other horses. Horses were submitted to a standardized exercise test (SET) to calculate their v₄ (velocity run under defined conditions inducing 4 mmol/L of blood lactate concentration (LA)) and v₁₈₀ (velocity run under defined conditions inducing a heart rate of 180 beats/min). The test consisted of up to five consecutive intervals at increasing speed until the blood LA of a horse increased above 4 mmol/L. The blood LA measured after each interval was plotted exponentially against running speed to derive v₄ from the blood lactate-running speed relationship, and the mean heart rate during the intervals was plotted linearly against running speed to derive v₁₈₀ from the heart rate-running speed relationship. The following were examined: (1) the development of v₄ and v₁₈₀ of five-year-old horses within one year through measurements in September and in the following July and September; the comparison of endurance variables (2) between five-year-olds and six-year-olds; (3) between six-year-olds on consecutive years; and 4) between six-year-olds and foreign horses. The results showed that: (1) there were no changes of either variable within one year (repeated measures ANOVA P > .05); (2) there were no significant differences between five-year-olds and six-year-olds (one-way ANOVA P > .05); (3) no significant differences between six-year-old groups (one-way ANOVA; P > 05); and (4) foreign horses had higher v₄ and v₁₈₀ values than six-year-olds (one-way ANOVA; P = .0001 and P = .003, respectively). There was no significant relationship between v₄ and v₁₈₀ (P > .05; r² = 0.02). In conclusion, one additional year on pasture in multiage herds did not increase the endurance variables of five-year-old horses. Thus, the endurance appeared to be consolidated in these horses at the age of five years, and additional training seems to be necessary to increase it.

Horses Could Perceive Riding Differently Depending on the Way They Express Poor Welfare in the Stable

This study investigated the relationships between four behavioral and postural indicators of a compromised welfare state in loose boxes (stereotypies, aggressive behaviors toward humans, withdrawn posture reflecting unresponsiveness to the environment, and alert posture indicating hypervigilance) and the way horses perceived riding. This perception was inferred using a survey completed by the usual riding instructor and during a standardized riding session (assessment of behaviors and postures, qualitative behavior assessment (QBA) and characterization of the horses' locomotion using an inertial measurement unit). In accordance with ear and tail positions and the QBA, stereotypic and the most hypervigilant horses in loose boxes seemed to experience a more negative affective state during the riding session compared with nonstereotypic and less hypervigilant animals (P < .02 in all cases). Horses which were aggressive toward humans in loose boxes had higher scores regarding the occurrence of discomfort and defensive behaviors on the survey than nonaggressive horses (P = .03). They also presented higher dorsoventral accelerations at a canter during the riding session (P = .03), requiring the rider to increase his spinal movement (P = .005). These results suggest that aggressive horses may be harder to ride than nonaggressive animals. The expression of unresponsiveness to the environment in loose boxes was related to more reluctance to move forward, as assessed in the survey (P = .006). This study suggests that a compromised welfare state in the stable is related to horses having a more negative perception of riding. This perception could vary depending on the expression of poor welfare.

Welfare of Free-Roaming Horses: 70 Years of Experience with Konik Polski Breeding in Poland

To prevent abuse and to assure the welfare of domestic horses, attempts to assess welfare in a standardized way have been made. Welfare-assessment tools often refer to the physical and social environments of feral domestic horses as examples of welfare-friendly conditions for horses. However, free-roaming horses are often exposed to conditions or states that may be regarded as welfare threats or abuse. The aim of this review was to present cases of welfare compromises as well as natural ways to restore high standards of welfare to Konik polski horses (Koniks) living in semiferal conditions in a forest sanctuary over the course of 70 years. Welfare problems in Koniks related to feeding, locomotor, social, reproductive, and comfort behavior, as well as health issues concerning hoof trimming and parasitism in Koniks, are discussed. Periodic food scarcity or abundance, stressful events around weaning and gathering, the consequences of fights among stallions, exposure to sire aggression during dispersal, lameness during "self-trimming," exposure to insect harassment, high levels of parasitism, and specific landscape formations may endanger free-roaming horses. It has to be underlined that despite the excellent adaptability of horses to free-roaming conditions, one should be aware that welfare problems are to be expected in any semiferal population. Here, we present the management system applied for 70 years in free-roaming Konik polski horses that minimizes welfare threats. It allows close follow-up of individual horses, the strict monitoring of health and welfare on a daily basis, and if necessary, instant reactions from caretakers in cases of emergency. Moreover, it addresses the problem of starvation due to overgrazing and thus, the ethical controversy related to the eradication of surplus animals causing environmental damage.

Priming for welfare: gut microbiota is associated with equitation conditions and behavior in horse athletes

We simultaneously measured the fecal microbiota and multiple environmental and host-related variables in a cohort of 185 healthy horses reared in similar conditions during a period of eight months. The pattern of rare bacteria varied from host to host and was largely different between two time points. Among a suite of variables examined, equitation factors were highly associated with the gut microbiota variability, evoking a relationship between gut microbiota and high levels of physical and mental stressors. Behavioral indicators that pointed toward a compromised welfare state (e.g. stereotypies, hypervigilance and aggressiveness) were also associated with the gut microbiota, reinforcing the notion for the existence of the microbiota-gut-brain axis. These observations were consistent with the microbiability of behaviour traits (> 15%), illustrating the importance of gut microbial composition to animal behaviour. As more elite athletes suffer from stress, targeting the microbiota offers a new opportunity to investigate the bidirectional interactions within the brain gut microbiota axis.

Temporary Relocation during Rest Periods: Relocation Stress and Other Factors Influence Hair Cortisol Concentrations in Horses

Horse transportation for temporary relocation during rest periods is a common and widespread practice among horse owners, either from sport competition or working tasks. This study aimed to determine the effect of a relocation period and the multiple factors associated with a rest period on hair cortisol concentrations (HCCs) in horses. Additionally, this study reports the seasonal effect on HCCs and hair growth over a year. Thirteen police horses, Pure Spanish stallions of various ages (5-13 y), were selected to participate in this study. Hair sample collection was carried out approximately every 30 d for seven months (Study 1) and a year (Study 2). Cortisol determinations were performed by enzyme immunoassay. Interestingly, Study 1 revealed that relocated horses (n = 4) exhibited elevated HCCs compared with control horses (n = 4) after the relocation period (p < 0.05). Study 2 (n = 5) showed higher HCCs during summer compared with autumn and winter, and higher hair growth rates in winter compared with the other seasons (p < 0.05). Relocated horses had higher HCCs, suggesting a change in their welfare status, probably related to the sudden change in their surrounding conditions. However, these results should be interpreted cautiously due to the low sample size used. The nature of the relationship between HCCs and horse welfare needs to be further examined.

Common Feeding Practices Pose A Risk to the Welfare of Horses When Kept on Non-Edible Bedding

During the evolution of the horse, an extended period of feed intake, spread over the entire 24-h period, determined the horses' behaviour and physiology. Horses will not interrupt their feed intake for more than 4 hours, if they have a choice. The aim of the present study was to investigate in what way restrictive feeding practices (non ad libitum) affect the horses' natural feed intake behaviour. We observed the feed intake behaviour of 104 horses on edible (n = 30) and non-edible bedding (n = 74) on ten different farms. We assessed the duration of the forced nocturnal feed intake interruption of horses housed on shavings when no additional roughage was available. Furthermore, we comparatively examined the feed intake behaviour of horses housed on edible versus non-edible bedding. The daily restrictive feeding of roughage (2 times a day: n = 8; 3 times a day: n = 2), as it is common in individual housing systems, resulted in a nocturnal feed intake interruption of more than 4 hours for the majority (74.32%, 55/74) of the horses on shavings (8:50 ± 1:25 h, median: 8:45 h, minimum: 6:45 h, maximum: 13:23 h). In comparison to horses on straw, horses on shavings paused their feed intake less frequently and at a later latency. Furthermore, they spent less time on consuming the evening meal than horses on straw. Our results of the comparison of the feed-intake behaviour of horses on edible and non-edible bedding show that the horses' ethological feeding needs are not satisfied on non-edible bedding. If the horses accelerate their feed intake (also defined as "rebound effect"), this might indicate that the horses` welfare is compromised. We conclude that in addition to the body condition score, the longest duration of feed intake interruption (usually in the night) is an important welfare indicator of horses that have limited access to roughage.

Effects of breed, management and personality on cortisol reactivity in sport horses

Sport horses need to fulfill high physical and psychological requirements during training and competition. These as well as certain conditions of modern husbandry may affect their wellbeing. Here we aimed to (1) evaluate effects of demographic and management factors as well as personality traits on stress reactivity of sport horses, (2) investigate if elite sport horses have elevated stress levels compared to amateur sport horses, and (3) assess whether different equestrian disciplines differentially influence equine adrenal cortex responsiveness. For this purpose, we visited 149 healthy elite (n = 94) and amateur (n = 54) sport horses in Switzerland and performed an adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulation test. Additionally, a person who was familiar with the horse completed a questionnaire about demographic and management factors and their horses' personality traits. Linear models were calculated to assess associations between the questionnaire data and salivary cortisol 60 (T60) and 90 (T90) minutes after ACTH stimulation. While the model at T90 was not significant, post-stimulatory cortisol after 60 minutes appears most informative in line with a previous study and was significantly affected by the breed and by three management factors: "number of riders", "hours spent outside" and "group housing" (adjusted r2 = 15%, p<0.001). Thoroughbred and Warmblood horses displayed an increased adrenal response compared to Franches-Montagnes horses. Horses with several riders had a less pronounced reaction than horses with one rider, and horses that spent more time outside had a decreased response compared to horses that were stabled most of the time. Horses living in groups showed higher post-stimulatory cortisol values than horses that were housed singly. However, no significant associations of cortisol responsiveness with personality traits were found, and neither the use as elite or as amateur sport horses nor the discipline had an effect on the cortisol response. This suggests that optimizing husbandry conditions may be more important for improving equine welfare than changing their use.