Additive Manufacturing and Textiles—State-of-the-Art

Synthesis and Investigation of Mechanical Properties of the Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene Fiber Composites Using Fused Deposition Modeling

Additive manufacturing is becoming a global phenomenon due to its versatile properties and numerous benefits, which is not possible by conventional machining processes. Fused deposition modeling (FDM) shows a huge potential of shift from rapid prototyping toward the rapid manufacturing. Nowadays, the strength of the FDM-printed parts is very important to consider along with all the printing parameters, which affect the strength of these parts. This study includes the investigation of printing parameters (infill density, layer thickness, and shell count) on the strength of FDM-printed parts of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and carbon fiber-reinforced ABS (ABS-CF). These printing parameters directly affect the quality as well as the strength of the 3D-printed parts through FDM. Tensile tests were performed on the universal testing machine on both types of printed parts. The optimized parameters for the 3D-printed samples of the pristine ABS are found to be 0.1045 mm of layer thickness, 57.72% of infill density, and 7.63 numbers of shell count, while the optimum parameters obtained for ABS-CF are 0.2780 mm of layer thickness, 28.37% of infill density, and 9.88 numbers of shell count. The results show that the layer thickness and shell count have a significant effect on the ultimate tensile strength of the 3D-printed parts.

3D Printing onto Textiles: A Systematic Analysis of the Adhesion Studies

The article reviews the literature focused on investigating the adhesion strength between the 3D-printed polymers and the textile substrates, and its dependence on different factors related to materials, printing parameters, and fabrics type and structure. 3D printing (3DP) onto textiles is a domain in expansion as it allows developing products with new functionalities by gathering the advantages of design freedom, tailor-fit, comfort, variety, and mass customization provided by both the textiles and the additive manufacturing technology. In this context, it becomes important to document and understand how the adherence of different 3D-printed molten polymer to diverse textiles substrates can be improved for obtaining products more resistant to specific conditions, such as washing, wear, or ironing. Following a systematic search of electronic databases, 28 articles were selected for the full-text read and data extraction. The summarized information was grouped per 3DP material and analyzed factors, and then discussed in terms of variables influencing the adherence, including pretreatments and post-treatments applied to fabrics or 3D-printed onto fabrics specimens and objects. A case study of a customized polylactic acid-cotton-elastane wrist-hand orthosis is also presented to exemplify the modality in which the information synthetized in this review can be used in the development process of a new product.

Advances in Additive Manufacturing of Polymer-Fused Deposition Modeling on Textiles: From 3D Printing to Innovative 4D Printing-A Review

Technological advances and the development of new and advanced materials allow the transition from three-dimensional (3D) printing to the innovation of four-dimensional (4D) printing. 3D printing is the process of precisely creating objects with complex shapes by depositing superimposed layers of material. Current 3D printing technology allows two or more filaments of different polymeric materials to be placed, which, together with the development of intelligent materials that change shape over time or under the action of an external stimulus, allow us to innovate and move toward an emerging area of research, innovative 4D printing technology. 4D printing makes it possible to manufacture actuators and sensors for various technological applications. Its most significant development is currently in the manufacture of intelligent textiles. The potential of 4D printing lies in modular manufacturing, where fabric-printed material interaction enables the creation of bio-inspired and biomimetic devices. The central part of this review summarizes the effect of the primary external stimuli on 4D textile materials, followed by the leading applications. Shape memory polymers attract current and potential opportunities in the textile industry to develop smart clothing for protection against extreme environments, auxiliary prostheses, smart splints or orthoses to assist the muscles in their medical recovery, and comfort devices. In the future, intelligent textiles will perform much more demanding roles, thus envisioning the application fields of 4D printing in the next decade.

First Proof-of-Principle of PolyJet 3D Printing on Textile Fabrics

Possibilities of direct 3D printing on textile fabrics have been investigated with increasing intensity during the last decade, leading to composites which can combine the positive properties of both parts, i.e., the fast production and lateral strength of textile fabrics with the flexural strength and point-wise definable properties of 3D printed parts. These experiments, however, were mostly performed using fused deposition modeling (FDM), which is an inexpensive and broadly available technique, but which suffers from the high viscosity of the molten polymers, often impeding a form-locking connection between polymer and textile fibers. One study reported stereolithography (SLA) to be usable for direct printing on textile fabrics, but this technique suffers from the problem that the textile material is completely soaked in resin during 3D printing. Combining the advantages of FDM (material application only at defined positions) and SLA (low-viscous resin which can easily flow into a textile fabric) is possible with PolyJet modeling (PJM) printing. Here, we report the first proof-of-principle of PolyJet printing on textile fabrics. We show that PJM printing with a common resin on different textile fabrics leads to adhesion forces according to DIN 53530 in the range of 30-35 N, which is comparable with the best adhesion forces yet reported for fused deposition modeling (FDM) printing with rigid polymers on textile fabrics.

Metal and Polymer Based Composites Manufactured Using Additive Manufacturing-A Brief Review

This review examines the mechanical performance of metal- and polymer-based composites fabricated using additive manufacturing (AM) techniques. Composite materials have significantly influenced various industries due to their exceptional reliability and effectiveness. As technology advances, new types of composite reinforcements, such as novel chemical-based and bio-based, and new fabrication techniques are utilized to develop high-performance composite materials. AM, a widely popular concept poised to shape the development of Industry 4.0, is also being utilized in the production of composite materials. Comparing AM-based manufacturing processes to traditional methods reveals significant variations in the performance of the resulting composites. The primary objective of this review is to offer a comprehensive understanding of metal- and polymer-based composites and their applications in diverse fields. Further on this review delves into the intricate details of metal- and polymer-based composites, shedding light on their mechanical performance and exploring the various industries and sectors where they find utility.

Investigation of Low-Cost FDM-Printed Polymers for Elevated-Temperature Applications

While fused deposition modeling (FDM) and other relatively inexpensive 3D printing methods are nowadays used in many applications, the possible areas of using FDM-printed objects are still limited due to mechanical and thermal constraints. Applications for space, e.g., for microsatellites, are restricted by the usually insufficient heat resistance of the typical FDM printing materials. Printing high-temperature polymers, on the other hand, necessitates special FDM printers, which are not always available. Here, we show investigations of common polymers, processible on low-cost FDM printers, under elevated temperatures of up to 160 °C for single treatments. The polymers with the highest dimensional stability and mechanical properties after different temperature treatments were periodically heat-treated between -40 °C and +80 °C in cycles of 90 min, similar to the temperature cycles a microsatellite in the low Earth orbit (LEO) experiences. While none of the materials under investigation fully maintains its dimensions and mechanical properties, filled poly(lactic acid) (PLA) filaments were found most suitable for applications under these thermal conditions.

A New Method for Testing the Breaking Force of a Polylactic Acid-Fabric Joint for the Purpose of Making a Protective Garment

3D printing is a technology that is increasingly used in the individualization of clothing, especially in the construction of garments for people with disabilities. The paper presents a study on the use of 3D printed knee protectors intended for wheelchair users. Due to the specific purpose of this 3D printed object, the breaking force of the polylactic acid (PLA) combined with 100% cotton and 100% polyester fabric was investigated. This paper will also describe a new method for testing the breaking force of a 3D printed polymer (PLA) combined with an incorporated fabric. Test samples were made, and the input parameters used in 3D printing were defined for testing purposes. A 3D knee protector for wheelchair users was developed based on a digitized model of the human body. The durability of the shape of the 3D printed shield was also tested after washing at temperatures of 40 °C, 50 °C and 60 °C. A clothing model that provides adequate user protection was proposed based on the conducted research. A construction solution has been proposed that enables the application of a 3D printed individualized garment element.

Influence of Simple and Double-Weave Structures on the Adhesive Properties of 3D Printed Fabrics

The double-weave structure of a fabric allows for the use of different materials and weave structures for the upper and lower layer, which can be advantageous in the functionalization of 3D printed textiles. Therefore, the aim of this research was to investigate the influence of simple and double-weave structures on the adhesion of 3D printed fabrics. From this perspective, we investigated the influence of different twill derivates and weft densities on the adhesion force. We produced fabrics specifically for this study and printed them with a polylactic acid filament using Fused Deposition Modeling technology. The T-peel test was performed to measure the adhesion, and the results were statistically analyzed. A morphological study of the surfaces and cross-sections of the 3D printed fabrics helped us interpret the results. We found that adhesion was higher for double fabrics when printed with a smaller z-distance, where the molten polymer reached the lower layer of the fabric and adhered to it. The opposite was confirmed when printing with a larger z-distance, where adhesion was higher for simple fabrics. Both weave and density had a significant effect on adhesion in all cases. Surprisingly, different twill derivatives generally had a greater influence on adhesion than density.

Towards the Sustainability of the Plastic Industry through Biopolymers: Properties and Potential Applications to the Textiles World

This study aims to provide an overview of the latest research studies on the use of biopolymers in various textile processes, from spinning processes to dyeing and finishing treatment, proposed as a possible solution to reduce the environmental impact of the textile industry. Recently, awareness of various polluting aspects of textile production, based on petroleum derivatives, has grown significantly. Environmental issues resulting from greenhouse gas emissions, and waste accumulation in nature and landfills, have pushed research activities toward more sustainable, low-impact alternatives. Polymers derived from renewable resources and/or with biodegradable characteristics were investigated as follows: (i) as constituent materials in yarn production, in view of their superior ability to be decomposed compared with common synthetic petroleum-derived plastics, positive antibacterial activities, good breathability, and mechanical properties; (ii) in textile finishing to act as biological catalysts; (iii) to impart specific functional properties to treated textiles; (iv) in 3D printing technologies on fabric surfaces to replace traditionally more pollutive dye-based and inkjet printing; and (v) in the implants for the treatment of dye-contaminated water. Finally, current projects led by well-known companies on the development of new materials for the textile market are presented.

State of the art in additive manufacturing and its possible chemical and particle hazards-review

Additive manufacturing, enabling rapid prototyping and so-called on-demand production, has become a common method of creating parts or whole devices. On a 3D printer, real objects are produced layer by layer, thus creating extraordinary possibilities as to the number of applications for this type of devices. The opportunities offered by this technique seem to be pushing new boundaries when it comes to both the use of 3D printing in practice and new materials from which the 3D objects can be printed. However, the question arises whether, at the same time, this solution is safe enough to be used without limitations, wherever and by everyone. According to the scientific reports, three-dimensional printing can pose a threat to the user, not only in terms of physical or mechanical hazards, but also through the potential emissions of chemical substances and fine particles. Thus, the presented publication collects information on the additive manufacturing, different techniques, and ways of printing with application of diverse raw materials. It presents an overview of the last 5 years' publications focusing on 3D printing, especially regarding the potential chemical and particle emission resulting from the use of such printers in both the working environment and private spaces.

Optical elements from 3D printed polymers

3D printing belongs to the emerging technologies of our time. Describing diverse specific techniques, 3D printing enables rapid production of individual objects and creating shapes that would not be produced with other techniques. One of the drawbacks of typical 3D printing processes, however, is the layered structure of the created parts. This is especially problematic in the production of optical elements, which in most cases necessitate highly even surfaces. To meet this challenge, advanced 3D printing techniques as well as other sophisticated solutions can be applied. Here, we give an overview of 3D printed optical elements, such as lenses, mirrors, and waveguides, with a focus on freeform optics and other elements for which 3D printing is especially well suited.

Nanomaterials-patterned flexible electrodes for wearable health monitoring: a review

ABSTRACT

Electrodes fabricated on a flexible substrate are a revolutionary development in wearable health monitoring due to their lightweight, breathability, comfort, and flexibility to conform to the curvilinear body shape. Different metallic thin-film and plastic-based substrates lack comfort for long-term monitoring applications. However, the insulating nature of different polymer, fiber, and textile substrates requires the deposition of conductive materials to render interactive functionality to substrates. Besides, the high porosity and flexibility of fiber and textile substrates pose a great challenge for the homogenous deposition of active materials. Printing is an excellent process to produce a flexible conductive textile electrode for wearable health monitoring applications due to its low cost and scalability. This article critically reviews the current state of the art of different textile architectures as a substrate for the deposition of conductive nanomaterials. Furthermore, recent progress in various printing processes of nanomaterials, challenges of printing nanomaterials on textiles, and their health monitoring applications are described systematically.

4D Textiles Made by Additive Manufacturing on Pre-Stressed Textiles—An Overview

Four-dimensional textiles are textiles that can change shape or function over time by the influence of a stimulus, mainly force and heat. In this review, the focus is on 4D textiles made by additive manufacturing which is built on the concept of 4D printing. A literature survey in Web of Science and Scopus was carried out, which resulted in 29 contributions on additive manufacturing on pre-stressed textiles. In this paper, an overview of materials, production technologies and testing methods is given. The concepts of form giving and shape change transferred to 4D textiles are classified. The influencing factors on the properties of the material structure are presented. The main focus of the literature lies in defining process and material properties for improving the adhesion. Only limited research has been conducted on simulating the material behavior. Ideas for applications exist but no research has been conducted on real applications. Therefore, the challenges are identified, and future research directions are derived.