Cr(VI) Sorption from Aqueous Solution: A Review

Lignin and functional polymer-based materials: Synthesis, characterization and application for Cr (VI) and As (V) removal from aqueous media

In this study, lignin derived from corncobs was chemically modified by substituting the hydroxyl groups present in its structure with methacrylate groups through a catalytic reaction using methacrylic anhydride, resulting in methacrylated lignin (ML). These MLs were incorporated in polymerization reaction of the monomer 2-[(acryloyloxy)ethyl trimethylammonium] chloride (Cl-AETA) and Cl-AETA, Cl-AETA/ML polymers were obtained, characterized (spectroscopic, thermal and microscopic analysis), and evaluated for removing Cr (VI) and As (V) from aqueous media in function of pH, contact time, initial metal concentrations and adsorbent amount. The Cl-AETA/ML polymers followed the Langmuir adsorption model for the evaluated metal anions and were able to remove up to 91 % of Cr (VI) with a qmax (maximum adsorption capacity) of 201 mg/g, while for As (V), up to 60 % could be removed with a qmax of 58 mg/g. The results demonstrate that simple modifications in lignin enhance its functionalization and properties, making it suitable for removing contaminants from aqueous media, showing promising results for potential future applications.

Measurement of elements by portable x-ray fluorescence spectrometry for the study of adsorption processes: the case of Pb2+adsorption on soybean straw biochar

This study evaluated the reliability of portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF) in Pb2+adsorption kinetics and isotherm experiments using soybean straw biochar. The research aimed to compare pXRF results with those obtained through traditional atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS). Soybean straw biochar, produced at 400 °C, was employed as the adsorbent for Pb2+. The efficiency of adsorption was assessed using Langmuir and Freundlich models. The kinetics of Pb2+adsorption was analysed through pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order models. The pseudo-second-order model described the kinetics of Pb2+adsorption on biochar better than the pseudo-first order model. Importantly, the pXRF technique demonstrated comparable results to those of AAS, making it a reliable and resource-efficient method for studying Pb2+kinetics. The results of the isotherm analyses fit the Langmuir model, indicating a desirable and irreversible adsorption of Pb2+on biochar. PXRF measurements on biochar allowed simultaneous observations of Pb2+adsorption and K+and Ca2+desorption, highlighting ionic exchange as the primary adsorption mechanism. In conclusion, our results showcased the applicability of pXRF for Pb+2adsorption studies in biochars, offering a valuable alternative to traditional methods. The findings contribute to the understanding of biochar as an effective adsorbent for heavy metals, emphasizing the potential of pXRF for cost-effective and efficient environmental research. In this study, we present a novel and detailed procedure that will allow other researchers to continue their studies on Pb2+adsorption on biochar or similar matrices, significantly reducing the resources and time used and enabling the simultaneous study of the behavior of other ions participating in the process.

Adsorption of Toxic Metals Using Hydrous Ferric Oxide Nanoparticles Embedded in Hybrid Ion-Exchange Resins

Acid mine drainage (AMD) is a major environmental problem caused by the release of acidic, toxic, and sulfate-rich water from mining sites. This study aimed to develop novel adsorbents for the removal of chromium (Cr(VI)), cadmium (Cd(II)), and lead (Pb(II)) from simulated and actual AMD using hybrid ion-exchange resins embedded with hydrous ferric oxide (HFO). Two types of resins were synthesized: anionic exchange resin (HAIX-HFO) for Cr(VI) removal and cationic exchange resin (HCIX-HFO) for Cd(II) and Pb(II) removal. The resins were characterized using scanning electron microscopy and Raman spectroscopy, which confirmed the presence of HFO particles. Batch adsorption experiments were conducted under acidic and sulfate-enhanced conditions to evaluate the adsorption capacity and kinetics of the resins. It was found that both resins exhibited high adsorption efficiencies and fast adsorption rates for their respective metal ions. To explore the potential adsorption on actual AMD, HCIX-HFO demonstrated significant removal of some metal ions. The saturated HCIX-HFO resin was regenerated using NaCl, and a high amount of the adsorbed Cd(II) and Pb(II) was recovered. This study demonstrates that HFO-embedded hybrid ion-exchange resins are promising adsorbents for treating AMD contaminated with heavy metals.

Guideline for modeling solid-liquid adsorption: Kinetics, isotherm, fixed bed, and thermodynamics

During the years, adsorption has garnered considerable attention being one of the most cost-effective and efficient methods for separating contaminants out of liquid phase. A comprehensive understanding of adsorption mechanisms entails several crucial steps, including adsorbent characterization, batch and column adsorption tests, fitting of predefined kinetic and isotherm models, and meticulous thermodynamic analysis. These combined efforts serve to provide clarity and insights into the intricate workings of adsorption phenomena. However, the vast amount of literature published in the field each year is riddled with ill-considered model selections and incorrect parameter analyses. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to establish guidelines for the proper employment of these numerous kinetic, isotherm, and fixed-bed models in various applications. A thorough review has been undertaken, encompassing more than 45 kinetic models, 70 isotherm models, and 45 fixed bed models available hitherto, with their classification determined based on the adsorption mechanisms expounded within each of them. Moreover, five general approaches for modifying fixed-bed models were provided. The physical meanings, assumptions, and interconversion relationships of the models were discussed in detail, along with the information criterion used to evaluate their validity. In addition to commonly used activation energy and Gibbs energy analysis, the methods for calculating site energy distribution were also summarized.

Kinetics of Direct Reaction of Vanadate, Chromate, and Permanganate with Graphene Nanoplatelets for Use in Water Purification

Oxometalates of vanadium(V), chromium(VI), and manganese(VII) have negative impacts on water resources due to their toxicity. To remove them, the kinetics of 0.04 mM oxometalates in natural and synthetic water were studied using graphene nanoplatelets (GNP). The GNP were dispersible in water and formed aggregates >15 µm that could be easily separated. Within 30 min, the GNP were covered with ~0.4 mg/g vanadium and ~1.0 mg/g chromium as Cr(OH)3. The reaction of 0.04 mM permanganate with 50 mg of GNP resulted in a coverage of 10 mg/g in 5 min, while the maximum value was 300 mg/g manganese as Mn2O3/MnO. TEM showed a random metal distribution on the surfaces; no clusters or nanoparticles were detected. The rate of disappearance in aerated water followed a pseudo second-order adsorption kinetics (PSO) for V(V), a pseudo second-order reaction for Cr(VI), and a pseudo first-order reaction for Mn(VII). For Cr(VI) and Mn(VII), the rate constants were found to depend on the GNP mass. Oxygen sorption occurred with PSO kinetics as a parallel slow process upon contact of GNP with air-saturated water. For thermally regenerated GNP, the rate constant decreased for V(V) but increased for Cr(VI), while no effect was observed for Mn(VII). GNP capacity was enhanced through regeneration for V(V) and Cr(VI); no effect was observed for Mn(VII). The reactions are well-suited for use in water purification processes and the reaction products, GNP, decorated with single metal atoms, are of great interest for the construction of sensors, electronic devices, and for application in single-atom catalysis (SAC).

One-Step Fabrication of Recyclable Konjac Glucomannan-Based Magnetic Nanoparticles for Highly Efficient Cr(VI) Adsorption

Recently, the natural polymer polysaccharide konjac glucomannan (KGM) has received attention as a promising adsorbent in water treatment due to its low toxicity, cost-effectiveness and biocompatibility. However, the high-level water absorbency of KGM makes it difficult to recover in water treatment. In this study, by combining KGM with magnetic nanoparticles, KGM-based magnetic nanoparticles (KGM-Fe3O4 NPs) with excellent adsorption properties and recyclability for heavy metals were prepared using an one-step precipitation method. The as-prepared KGM-Fe3O4 NPs have a spherical morphology of superparamagnetism with a small particle size (ca. 7.0 nm) and a large specific surface area (160.1 m2·g-1). Taking Cr(VI) as the target heavy metal ion, the above nanoparticles have a high adsorption capacity and fast adsorption rate for Cr(VI). The pseudo-second order kinetic model is more suitable to describe the adsorption process of Cr(VI) by KGM-Fe3O4 NPs, and the maximum adsorption capacity of Cr(VI) onto KGM-Fe3O4 NPs was calculated to be 41.67 mg·g-1 using the Langmuir isotherm model. In addition, KGM-Fe3O4 NPs with adsorbed heavy metal ions can be quickly recovered from a solution, regenerated, and reused in the next cycle. KGM-based Fe3O4 nanoparticles are promising adsorbents that show significant reusability for the removal of metal ions in water and wastewater treatment.

β-CD-Induced Precipitation of Eriochrome Black T Recovered via CTAB-Assisted Foam Fractionation for Adsorption of Trace Cu(II)

In order to remove and reuse the ecotoxic dye Eriochrome black T (EBT) from dyeing wastewater, we used a process called cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB)-assisted foam fractionation. By optimizing this process with response surface methodology, we achieved an enrichment ratio of 110.3 ± 3.8 and a recovery rate of 99.1 ± 0.3%. Next, we prepared composite particles by adding β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) to the foamate obtained through foam fractionation. These particles had an average diameter of 80.9 μm, an irregular shape, and a specific surface area of 0.15 m²/g. Using these β-CD-CTAB-EBT particles, we were able to effectively remove trace amounts of Cu²⁺ ions (4 mg/L) from the wastewater. The adsorption of these ions followed pseudo-second-order kinetics and Langmuir isotherm models, and the maximal adsorption capacities at different temperatures were 141.4 mg/g at 298.15 K, 143.1 mg/g at 308.15 K, and 144.5 mg/g at 318.15 K. Thermodynamic analysis showed that the mechanism of Cu²⁺ removal via β-CD-CTAB-EBT was spontaneous and endothermic physisorption. Under the optimized conditions, we achieved a removal ratio of 95.3 ± 3.0% for Cu²⁺ ions, and the adsorption capacity remained at 78.3% after four reuse cycles. Overall, these results demonstrate the potential of β-CD-CTAB-EBT particles for the recovery and reuse of EBT in dyeing wastewater.

Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow. Evolution of a Sleeping Beauty: The Freundlich Isotherm

The name of Herbert Freundlich is commonly associated with a power relationship for adsorbed amount of a substance (C_ads) against the concentration in solution (C_sln), such that C_ads = KC_slnⁿ; this isotherm (together with the Langmuir isotherm) is considered to be the model of choice for correlating the experimental adsorption data of micropollutants or contaminants of emerging concern (pesticides, pharmaceuticals, and personal care products), but it also concerns the adsorption of gases on solids. However, Freundlich's 1907 paper was a "sleeping beauty", which only started to attract significant citations from the early 2000s onward; moreover, these citations were too often wrong. In this paper, the main steps in the historical developments of Freundlich isotherm are identified, along with a discussion of several theoretical points: (1) derivation of the Freundlich isotherm from an exponential distribution of energies, leading to a more general equation, based on the Gauss hypergeometric function, of which the power Freundlich equation is an approximation; (2) application of this hypergeometric isotherm to the case of competitive adsorption, when the binding energies are perfectly correlated; and (3) new equations for estimating the Freundlich coefficient K_F from physicochemical properties such as the sticking surface or probability. From new data treatment of two examples from the literature, the influence of several parameters is highlighted, and the application of linear free-energy relationships (LFER) to the Freundlich parameters for different series of compounds is evoked, along with its limitations. We also suggest some ideas that may be worth exploring in the future, such as extending the range of applications of the Freundlich isotherm by means of its hypergeometric version, extending the competitive adsorption isotherm in the case of partial correlation, and exploring the interest of the sticking surfaces or probabilities instead of K_F for LFER analysis.

Removal of Hexavalent Chromium in Aqueous Solution by Cellulose Filter Paper Loaded with Nano-Zero-Valent Iron: Performance Investigation and Numerical Modeling

Cr(VI) pollution in water bodies is very harmful to human health and the environment. Therefore, it is necessary to remove Cr(VI) from water. In this study, the composite (FP-nZVI) was prepared by loading nano-zero-valent iron (nZVI) onto cellulose filter paper (FP) using a liquid-phase reduction method to improve the dispersibility and oxidation resistance of nZVI. In batch experiments, the effects of iron loading of FP-nZVI, initial concentration of Cr(VI), temperature, and pH on Cr(VI) removal were particularly investigated. The maximum removal rate of 98.6% was achieved at 25 °C, pH = 5, initial concentration of Cr(VI) of 20 mg/L, and FeCl₃·6H₂O solution concentration of 0.8 mol/L. The removal of Cr(VI) by FP-nZVI conformed to a pseudo-second-order kinetic model and Langmuir isotherm model. The mechanism of Cr(VI) removal was a multi-step removal mechanism, involving adsorption, reduction, and coprecipitation. Column experiments investigated the effect of flow rate (1 mL/min, 3 mL/min, and 5 mL/min) on Cr(VI) removal. We found that increasing flow rate slightly decreased the removal rate of Cr(VI). The transport of Cr(VI) in composite porous media was simulated using HYDRUS-1D, and the results show that the two-site model can well simulate the reactive transport of Cr(VI). This study may provide a useful reference for the remediation of groundwater contaminated with Cr(VI) or other similar heavy metals using FP-nZVI.

Structural Properties of Graphene Oxide Prepared from Graphite by Three Different Methods and the Effect on Removal of Cr(VI) from Aqueous Solution

Herein, three types of graphene oxides (GOs, GO-M1, GO-M2 and GO-M3) have been successfully prepared from graphite by three different methods and utilized for the removal of Cr(VI) from aqueous solutions. Further, the effects of initial concentration and pH, adsorbent dosage, contact time and temperature on the adsorption performance of GOs were investigated by batch adsorption experiments. Furthermore, the adsorption mechanisms for Cr(VI) adsorption by GOs are mainly the redox reaction and electrostatic attraction, while there are also pore filling, ion exchange and complexation involved in these adsorption processes. The adsorption kinetic and isotherm data indicate that these adsorption processes of GOs on Cr(VI) are dominantly monolayer chemisorption and equilibrium can be reached in 30 min. The saturation adsorption capacities (Q_m, 298.15 K) of GO-M1, GO-M2 and GO-M3 for Cr(VI) are estimated to be 3.5412 mg⋅g^-1, 2.3631 mg⋅g^-1 and 7.0358 mg⋅g^-1, respectively. Moreover, the adsorption thermodynamic study showed that these adsorption processes of Cr(VI) by the three types of GOs at 298.15 K to 323.15 K are endothermic, entropy-driven and thermodynamically spontaneous and feasible. Overall, these findings provided vital insights into the mechanism and application of Cr(VI) removal by GOs.

Insights into Cr(VI) removal mechanism in water by facile one-step pyrolysis prepared coal gangue-biochar composite

The acceleration of industrialization has increased the discharge of chromium-containing wastewater, posing serious threat to the eco-environment and human health. To remove Cr(VI) in wastewater and improve resource utilization of solid waste, coal gangue and rape straw were initially used to prepare coal gangue-rape straw biochar (CG-RS) composite. The effects of pyrolysis temperatures, solution pH, coexisting ions of Cr(VI) adsorption were investigated. Different adsorption models combined with site energy analysis were used to explore the adsorption behaviors and mechanisms. The results showed higher pyrolysis temperature (600 °C) prepared CG-RS had a larger adsorption capacity (9.2 mg/g) for Cr(VI) (pH = 5.0). Analysis of XPS indicated that CG-RS successfully loaded with Fe-O and Al-O functional groups, which mainly participated in the reduction of Cr(VI). Site energy analysis further proved that reduction and surface complexation were the main adsorption mechanisms. This study shows an effective removal of Cr(VI) by CG-RS, providing a new way for resource utilization of solid waste.

Marine Biomass-Supported Nano Zero-Valent Iron for Cr(VI) Removal: A Response Surface Methodology Study

Heavy metal ions such as Cr(VI) pose great hazards to the environment, which requests materials and methods for decontamination. Nano zero-valent iron (nZVI) has emerged as a promising candidate for Cr(VI) removal. Herein, harnessing the merits of marine biomass, a heterogeneous water treatment system for the decontamination of Cr(VI) is developed based on the in situ immobilization of nZVI on the seashell powder (SP)-derived porous support. A response surface methodology (RSM) study involving three independent factors is designed and conducted to direct material synthesis and reaction design for products with optimal performances. Under optimal synthetic conditions, the nZVI-loaded seashell powder (SP@nZVI), which is characterized in detail by scanning electron microscope (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), results in a 79% increase in the removal efficiency of Cr(VI) compared to free nZVI. Mechanism studies show that the removal of Cr(VI) by SP@nZVI conforms to the Langmuir adsorption model with a quasi-second order kinetic equation, in which redox reactions between nZVI and Cr(VI) occurred at the SP surface. The results of this work are expected to benefit the reuse of bioresource waste in developing environmental remediation materials.

The highly enhanced Cr(VI) photoreduction removal by oxalic acid coordinated with iron-loaded waste Loofah

In order to remove high toxic Cr(VI) from the water with low cost and high efficiency, iron-loaded Loofah (Loofah-Fe) was prepared from agriculture waste Loofah and was applied in the Cr(VI) photoreduction remvoal by oxalic acid (Ox). The Cr(VI) removal of Loofah-Fe/Ox/UV system were investigated by the effect of initial Cr(VI) concentration, Ox concentration and Loofah-Fe dosage. The Cr(VI) removal mechanism in Loofah-Fe/Ox/UV system were discussed through the study of initial pH, the change (pH, Ox concentration, Fe(II) and Fe(III) concentration) in solution during the reaction, and the free radicals scavenging test. The role of Loofah-Fe in Loofah-Fe/Ox/UV system was further deduced by the analysis of XPS, EIS and Mott-Schottky. The results showed that Loofah-Fe remarkably enhanced the Cr(VI) photoreduction by Ox, 1 mM of Cr(VI) in aqueous solution was completely removed in 30 min by Loofah-Fe/Ox/UV system at pH = 3.0. The loaded Fe(III) and the contained SiO₂ on Loofah-Fe played an important synergized photocatalytic role for Cr(VI) removal in Loofah-Fe/Ox/UV system. Fe(II) and CO₂·^-, which was continuously generated by photoactive Fe(III)-(C₂O₄)₃ formed between Ox and Fe(III) dissolved from Loofah-Fe, reduced a large amounts of Cr(VI) in solution. The separated electron (e^-) and the produced CO₂·^-, generated from the oxidized Ox by the hole (h⁺) through photoactive SiO₂ on Loofah-Fe, also reduced part of Cr(VI).

Boosted Cr(VI) sorption coupled reduction from aqueous solution using quaternized algal/alginate@PEI beads

APEI beads (algal/alginate-PEI) were quaternized for enhancing the sorption of Cr(VI) (Q-APEI). The readily reduction of Cr(VI) into Cr(III) in acidic solution and in the presence of organic material constitute an additional phenomenon to be taken into account for the removal of Cr(VI) by Q-APEI. The optimal pH value for both the sorption and reduction of Cr(VI) was close to 2. The sorption isotherm was well described by the Sips model in batch system; the experimental maximum Cr(VI) sorption capacity of Q-APEI was 334 mg Cr(VI) g^-1, including a reduction yield close to 25%. The pseudo-second-order kinetic model (PSORE) and the Yan model fit the uptake kinetics and breakthrough curves, in a fixed-bed system with circulation or single-path modes, respectively. The mechanism of reduction-assisted sorption allows boosting the global removal of chromate. Furthermore, the testing of Cr(VI) for three successive sorption and desorption cycles shows the remarkable stability of the sorbent for Cr(VI) removal. The Cr(VI) sorption coupled reduction mechanism and interactions between the sorbent and Cr(VI) were further explained using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS).

Assessing the Plant Phytoremediation Efficacy for Azolla filiculoides in the Treatment of Textile Effluent and Redemption of Congo Red Dye onto Azolla Biomass

In this work, Azolla filiculoides was used for the bioremediation of a textile effluent and as a potential sorbent for the rejection of Congo red (CR9) dye from a synthetic aqueous solution. The sorbent was characterized, and a pot culture test was carried out to assess the physiological responses in a controlled environment. The response of the plants to the exposure to the emanating pollutants was subordinate. The BOD, COD, and TDS removals were found to be 98.2%, 98.23%, and 90.29%, respectively. Moreover, the dried biomass was studied for the expulsion of CR9, and the process variables were optimized. The maximum CR9 removal was 95% at the optimal conditions of 2 g/L of the sorbent dose at acidic pH. Equilibrium data for adsorption were analyzed using a two-parameter isotherm model. It was observed that the Langmuir isotherm fit with the data (R2 = 0.98) and also had satisfactory lower error values, with its maximum sorption capacity reaching 243 mg/g. The pseudo-second-order kinetics were well fitted (R2 = 0.98). The mass transfer models and the thermodynamic parameters of the system were evaluated. The regeneration studies also showed that the uptake efficacy in the fifth cycle is reduced by 20% when compared with the first cycle. The results show that the biomass was a capable sorbent for the removal of CR9.